Central Park

===Construction===

Construction of Central Park's design was executed by a gamut of professionals. [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] and [[Calvert Vaux]] were the primary designers, assisted by board member [[Andrew Haswell Green]], architect [[Jacob Wrey Mould]], master gardener [[Ignaz Anton Pilat]], and engineer [[George E. Waring Jr.]]{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=51}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ci.columbia.edu/0240s/0244_3/0244_3_s3_text.html |title=The Architecture and Development of New York City|first=Andrew S.|last=Dolkart|access-date=October 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205202859/http://ci.columbia.edu/0240s/0244_3/0244_3_s3_text.html|archive-date=December 5, 2008}}</ref> Olmsted was responsible for the overall plan, while Vaux designed some of the finer details. Mould, who worked frequently with Vaux, designed the Central Park Esplanade and the [[Tavern on the Green]] building.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=52}} Pilat was the park's chief landscape architect, whose primary responsibility was the importation and placement of plants within the park.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=52}}{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=170–172}} A "corps" of construction engineers and foremen, managed by superintending engineer William H. Grant, were tasked with the measuring and constructing architectural features such as paths, roads, and buildings.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=159–160}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/21074748/william_h_grant_obituary_page_5/|title=William H. Grant, C.E|date=October 12, 1896|work=The New York Times|access-date=March 30, 2019|page=5|via=newspapers.com|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419152113/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/21074748/william_h_grant_obituary_page_5/|archive-date=April 19, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Waring was one of the engineers working under Grant's leadership and was in charge of land drainage.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=163–165}}{{sfn|Heckscher|2008|pp=40–41}}

Central Park was difficult to construct because of the generally rocky and swampy landscape.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=57–58}} Around {{Convert|5|e6ft3|m3||spell=in}} of soil and rocks had to be transported out of the park, and more gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] during the [[American Civil War]].{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|p=150}} More than {{convert|18500|yd3|m3}} of topsoil were transported from [[Long Island]] and [[New Jersey]], because the original soil was neither fertile nor sufficiently substantial to sustain the flora specified in the Greensward Plan.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=57–58}}{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|p=150}} Modern steam-powered equipment and custom tree-moving machines augmented the work of unskilled laborers.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|p=150}} In total, over 20,000 individuals helped construct Central Park.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|p=150}} Because of extreme precautions taken to minimize collateral damage, five laborers died during the project, at a time when fatality rates were generally much higher.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=166–167}}

During the development of Central Park, Superintendent Olmsted hired several dozen [[mounted police]] officers, who were classified into two types of "keepers": park keepers and gate keepers.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=57–58}}{{sfn|New York City Department of Parks and Recreation|1865|pp=20–21 (PDF pp. 19–20)}}{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=288–289}} The mounted police were viewed favorably by park patrons and were later incorporated into a permanent patrol.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=57–58}} The regulations were sometimes strict.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=288–289}} For instance, prohibited actions included [[Game of chance|games of chance]], speech-making, large congregations such as [[picnics]], or picking flowers or other parts of plants.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=288–289}}{{sfn|Berman|2003|p=41}}<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/30592170/|title=Ordinances of the Central Park|date=June 5, 1870 |work=[[New York Herald]]|access-date=March 30, 2019|page=12|via=newspapers.com}}</ref> These ordinances were effective: by 1866, there had been nearly eight million visits and only 110 arrests in the park's history.{{sfn|Homberger|1994|pp=88–89}}

==== Late 1850s ====
[[File:The Lake Central Park.jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|alt=The Lake in Central Part with a high-rise building in the background|The Lake, one of the first features of Central Park to be completed]]
In late August 1857, workers began building fences, clearing vegetation, draining the land, and leveling uneven terrain.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=161–162}}{{sfn|New York City Department of Parks and Recreation|1858|loc=PDF pp. 31–35}} By the following month, chief engineer Viele reported that the project employed nearly 700 workers.{{sfn|New York City Department of Parks and Recreation|1858|loc=PDF pp. 31–35}} Olmsted employed workers using [[day labor]], hiring men directly without any contracts and paying them by the day.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=159–160}} Many of the laborers were [[Irish diaspora|Irish immigrants]] or first-or-second generation [[Irish Americans]], and some [[German Americans|Germans]] and [[Italian Americans|Italians]];{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=173–175}} there were no black or female laborers.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=282–283}}{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=176–177}} The workers were often underpaid,{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=176–177}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1857/12/11/archives/newyork-city-dr-charles-mackay-on-english-songs-and-songwriters.html |title=New York City; Dr Charles Mackay, on English Songs and Song-Writers|date=December 11, 1857|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 7, 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407020321/https://www.nytimes.com/1857/12/11/archives/newyork-city-dr-charles-mackay-on-english-songs-and-songwriters.html|archive-date=April 7, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and workers would often take jobs at other construction projects to supplement their income.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=178–179}} A pattern of seasonal hiring was established, wherein more workers would be hired and paid at higher rates during the summers.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=176–177}}

For several months, the park commissioners faced funding issues,<ref name="NYS-1911">{{cite book |chapter=Sixteenth Annual Report, 1911, of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society |title=First-thirtieth Annual Report ... 1896–1925 to the Legislature of the State of New York |year=1911 |publisher=American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0KhIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA474 474]}}</ref>{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=151–152}} and a dedicated workforce and funding stream was not secured until June 1858.<ref name="NYS-1911"/> The landscaped [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir|Upper Reservoir]] was the only part of the park that the commissioners were not responsible for constructing; instead, the Reservoir would be built by the Croton Aqueduct board. Work on the Reservoir started in April 1858.{{sfn|Heckscher|2008|pp=47–48}} The first major work in Central Park involved grading the driveways and draining the land in the park's southern section.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=31}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1858/11/11/archives/the-central-park-progress-of-the-workits-present-condition-and-the.html |title=The Central Park; Progress of the Work—Its Present Condition, and the Prospects of its being Opened to the Public|date=November 11, 1858|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 2, 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411222607/https://www.nytimes.com/1858/11/11/archives/the-central-park-progress-of-the-workits-present-condition-and-the.html|archive-date=April 11, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Lake in Central Park's southwestern section was the first feature to open to the public, in December 1858,{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=32–33}} followed by the Ramble in June 1859.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=166–167}}{{sfn|New York City Department of Parks and Recreation|1859|p=10 (PDF p. 11)}} The same year, the New York State Legislature authorized the purchase of an additional {{convert|65|acre|ha}} at the northern end of Central Park, from 106th&nbsp;to 110th&nbsp;Streets.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=32–33}}{{sfn|New York City Department of Parks and Recreation|1859|p=23 (PDF p. 25)}} The section of Central Park south of 79th&nbsp;Street was mostly completed by 1860.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1860/05/01/archives/central-park-matters-plan-of-work-for-the-year-summer-features-of.html |title=Central Park Matters; Plan of Work for the Year |date=May 1, 1860|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 4, 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404170136/https://www.nytimes.com/1860/05/01/archives/central-park-matters-plan-of-work-for-the-year-summer-features-of.html|archive-date=April 4, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

The park commissioners reported in June 1860 that $4&nbsp;million had been spent on the construction to date.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1860/06/28/archives/the-central-park-investigation-examination-of-mr-olmsted.html |title=The Central Park Investigation; Examination of Mr. Olmsted|date=June 28, 1860|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 9, 2019|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> As a result of the sharply rising construction costs, the commissioners eliminated or downsized several features in the Greensward Plan.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=184–186}} Based on claims of cost mismanagement, the New York State Senate commissioned the Swiss engineer Julius Kellersberger to write a report on the park.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1860/11/23/archives/the-central-park-investigation-expenses-and-general-management.html |title=The Central Park Investigation; Expenses and General Management|date=November 23, 1860|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 9, 2019|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Kellersberger's report, submitted in 1861, stated that the commission's management of the park was a "triumphant success".{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=188–189}}{{sfn|Heckscher|2008|pp=37–38}}

{{wide image|Annual report of the Board of Commissioners of the Central Park (1858) (18246225410).jpg|800px|alt=Map showing improvements to the park in 1858|Map of improvements underway by 1858|align-cap=center}}

==== 1860s ====
[[File:Central Park 1862 crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1|alt=Bethesda Terrace under construction|[[Bethesda Terrace]] and Fountain under construction in 1862]]
Olmsted often clashed with the park commissioners, notably with Chief Commissioner Green.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=184–186}}{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=64–65}} Olmsted resigned in June 1862, and Green was appointed to Olmsted's position.<ref name="NYTimes-Green-CP-1897">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1897/10/10/archives/illustrated-weekly-magazine-andrew-h-green-and-central-park.html |title=Andrew H. Green and Central Park|date=October 10, 1897 |work=The New York Times|access-date=April 2, 2019|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=190–192}} Vaux resigned in 1863 because of what he saw as pressure from Green.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=69}} As superintendent of the park, Green accelerated construction, though having little experience in architecture.<ref name="NYTimes-Green-CP-1897"/> He implemented a style of [[micromanagement]], keeping records of the smallest transactions in an effort to reduce costs.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=64–65}}{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=193–195}} Green finalized the negotiations to purchase the northernmost {{convert|65|acre}} of the park which was later converted into a "rugged" woodland and the Harlem Meer waterway.<ref name="NYTimes-Green-CP-1897"/>{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|pp=193–195}}

When the American Civil War began in 1861, the park commissioners decided to continue building Central Park, since significant parts of the park had already been completed.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=46}} Only three major structures were completed during the Civil War: the Music Stand and the [[Central Park Casino|Casino]] restaurant, both later demolished, and the [[Bethesda Terrace and Fountain]].{{sfn|Heckscher|2008|pp=58–59}} By late 1861, the park south of 72nd&nbsp;Street had been completed, except for various fences.{{sfn|New York City Department of Parks and Recreation|1861|p=16 (PDF p. 19)}} Work had begun on the northern section of the park but was complicated by a need to preserve the historic [[McGowan's Pass]].{{sfn|New York City Department of Parks and Recreation|1864|pp=7–8}} The Upper Reservoir was completed the following year.{{sfn|Kadinsky|2016|p=42}}

During this period Central Park began to gain popularity.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=46}} One of the main attractions was the "Carriage Parade", a daily display of horse-drawn carriages that traversed the park.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=46}}{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|p=222}}{{sfn|Morris|1996|p=95}} Park patronage grew steadily: by 1867, Central Park accommodated nearly three million pedestrians, 85,000 horses, and 1.38&nbsp;million vehicles annually.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=46}} The park had activities for New Yorkers of all social classes. While the wealthy could ride horses on bridle paths or travel in horse-drawn carriages, almost everyone was able to participate in sports such as ice-skating or rowing, or listen to concerts at the Mall's bandstand.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=47}}

Olmsted and Vaux were re-hired in mid-1865.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=71}} Several structures were erected, including the Children's District, the [[Ballplayers House]], and the Dairy in the southern part of Central Park. Construction commenced on Belvedere Castle, Harlem Meer, and structures on Conservatory Water and the Lake.{{sfn|Heckscher|2008|pp=58–59}}{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=74}}

==== 1870–1876: completion ====
[[File:The Pennsylvania railroad- its origin, construction, condition, and connections. Embracing historical, descriptive, and statistical notices of cities, towns, villages, stations, industries, and (14573460329).jpg|thumb|upright=1|alt=People on horseback and riding in carriages in the park|Gentry in the new park, {{circa}} 1870]]
The [[Tammany Hall]] political machine, which was the largest political force in New York at the time, was in control of Central Park for a brief period beginning in April 1870.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=77}} A new [[charter]] created by Tammany boss [[William M. Tweed]] abolished the old 11-member commission and replaced it with one with five men composed of Green and four other Tammany-connected figures.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=77}}{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|p=263}} Subsequently, Olmsted and Vaux resigned again from the project in November 1870.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|p=77}} After Tweed's embezzlement was publicly revealed in 1871, leading to his imprisonment, Olmsted and Vaux were re-hired, and the Central Park Commission appointed new members who were mostly in favor of Olmsted.{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=78–79}}

One of the areas that remained relatively untouched was the underdeveloped western side of Central Park, though some large structures would be erected in the park's remaining empty plots.<ref name="NYTimes-Improvement-1872">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1872/08/25/archives/central-park-improvement.html |title=Central Park Improvement|date=August 25, 1872|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 9, 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409175425/https://www.nytimes.com/1872/08/25/archives/central-park-improvement.html|archive-date=April 9, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> By 1872, Manhattan Square had been reserved for the [[American Museum of Natural History]], founded three years before at the [[Arsenal (Central Park)|Arsenal]]. A corresponding area on the East Side, originally intended as a playground, would later become the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].<ref name="NYTimes-Improvement-1872"/>{{sfn|Kinkead|1990|pp=86–87}} In the final years of Central Park's construction, Vaux and Mould designed several structures for Central Park. The park's sheepfold (now Tavern on the Green) and Ladies' Meadow were designed by Mould in 1870–1871, followed by the administrative offices on the 86th&nbsp;Street transverse in 1872.{{sfn|Heckscher|2008|p=60}} Even though Olmsted and Vaux's partnership was dissolved by the end of 1872,{{sfn|Rosenzweig|Blackmar|1992|p=280}} the park was not officially completed until 1876.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|p=292}}