Age of Discovery

===Chinese missions (1405–1433)===
{{Further|Ming treasure voyages|Chinese exploration}}
[[File:Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|"Mao Kun map", believed to be based on [[Zheng He]]'s travels, showing sailing directions between ports of SE Asia and as far as Malindi, in ''[[Wu Bei Zhi]]'' (1628)]]
The Chinese had wide connections through trade in Asia and had been sailing to [[Arabia]], [[East Africa]], and [[Egypt]] since the [[Tang dynasty]] (AD 618–907). Between 1405 and 1421, the third Ming emperor [[Yongle Emperor|Yongle]] sponsored a series of long range [[tribute|tributary missions]] in the Indian Ocean under the command of admiral [[Zheng He]] (Cheng Ho).<ref name="auto"/> As important as they are, these voyages did not result in permanent links to overseas territories because of isolationist policy changes in China ending the voyages and knowledge of them.

A large fleet of new [[Junk (ship)|junk]] ships was prepared for these international diplomatic expeditions. The largest of these junks—that the Chinese termed [[Chinese treasure ship|''bao chuan'' (treasure ships)]]—may have measured 121 metres (400&nbsp;feet) stem to stern, and thousands of sailors were involved. The first expedition departed in 1405. At least seven well-documented expeditions were launched, each bigger and more expensive than the last. The fleets visited [[Arabia]], [[East Africa]], [[India]], [[Malay Archipelago]] and [[Thailand]] (at the time called [[Siam]]), exchanging goods along the way.<ref>[[#Tamura 1997|Tamura 1997]], p. 70.</ref> They presented gifts of gold, silver, [[porcelain]] and [[silk]]; in return, received such novelties as [[ostrich]]es, [[zebra]]s, [[camel]]s, [[ivory]] and [[giraffe]]s.<ref>[[#Cromer 1995|Cromer 1995]], p. 117.</ref><ref>[[#Tsai 2002|Tsai 2002]], p. 206.</ref> After the emperor's death, Zheng He led a final expedition departing from Nanking in 1431 and returning to Beijing in 1433. It is very likely that this last expedition reached as far as [[Madagascar]]. The travels were reported by [[Ma Huan]], a Muslim voyager and translator who accompanied Zheng He on three of the seven expeditions, his account published as the ''[[Yingya Shenglan]]'' (Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores) (1433).<ref>[[#Mancall 2006|Mancall 2006]], p. 115.</ref>

The voyages had a significant and lasting effect on the organization of a [[Maritime Silk Road|maritime network]], utilizing and creating nodes and conduits in its wake, thereby restructuring international and cross-cultural relationships and exchanges.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3/> It was especially impactful as no other polity had exerted naval dominance over all sectors of the Indian Ocean prior to these voyages.<ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=609}}.</ref> The Ming promoted alternative nodes as a strategy to establish control over the network.<ref name=se16-615>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=615}}.</ref> For instance, due to Chinese involvement, ports such as [[Malacca]] (in Southeast Asia), [[Cochin]] (on the Malabar Coast), and [[Malindi]] (on the Swahili Coast) had grown as key alternatives to other important and established ports.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Major ports in their respective regions included Palembang on the Malaccan Strait, Calicut on the Malabar coast, and Mombasa on the Swahili Coast (see {{Harvnb|Sen|2016}}).}}<ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=620–621}}.</ref> The appearance of the Ming treasure fleet generated and intensified competition among contending polities and rivals, each seeking an alliance with the Ming.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3/>

The voyages also brought about the Western Ocean's [[regional integration]] and the increase in [[Mobilities|international circulation]] of people, ideas, and goods. It also provided a platform for [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] discourses, which took place in locations such as the ships of the Ming treasure fleet, the Ming capitals of Nanjing as well as Beijing, and the banquet receptions organized by the Ming court for foreign representatives.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=609–611 & 631–633}}.</ref> Diverse groups of people from across the maritime countries congregated, interacted, and traveled together as the Ming treasure fleet sailed from and to Ming China.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3/> For the first time in its history, the maritime region from China to Africa was under the dominance of a single imperial power and thereby allowed for the creation of a cosmopolitan space.<ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=611}}.</ref>

These long-distance journeys were not followed up, as the Chinese Ming dynasty retreated in the ''[[haijin]]'', a policy of [[isolationism]], having limited maritime trade. Travels were halted abruptly after the emperor's death, as the Chinese lost interest in what they termed barbarian lands, turning inward,<ref name="Mancall 2006"/> and successor emperors felt the expeditions were harmful to the Chinese state; [[Hongxi Emperor]] ended further expeditions and [[Xuande Emperor]] suppressed much of the information about Zheng He's voyages.