1960 United States presidential election

===Campaign events===
[[File:John F. Kennedy campaigns in LaGrange, Georgia 1960.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy campaigning in [[LaGrange, Georgia]], October 1960]]
Kennedy and Nixon both drew large and enthusiastic crowds throughout the campaign.<ref>[[E. Thomas Wood]], {{cite news|url=http://www.nashvillepost.com/news/2007/10/5/nashville_now_and_then_5oct2007|title=Nashville now and then: Nixon paints the town red|work=NashvillePost.com|access-date=October 6, 2007|date=October 5, 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927034101/http://www.nashvillepost.com/news/2007/10/5/nashville_now_and_then_5oct2007|archive-date=September 27, 2008}}</ref> In August 1960, most polls gave Nixon a slim lead over Kennedy, and many political [[Pundit (expert)|pundits]] regarded him as the favorite to win. However, Nixon was plagued by bad luck throughout the fall campaign. In August, President Eisenhower, who had long been ambivalent about Nixon, held a televised press conference in which a reporter, [[Charles Mohr (journalist)|Charles Mohr]] of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', mentioned Nixon's claims that he had been a valuable administration insider and adviser. Mohr asked Eisenhower if he could give an example of a major idea of Nixon's that he had heeded. Eisenhower responded with the flip comment, "If you give me a week, I might think of one."<ref>Ambrose, Stephen E. (1991). ''Eisenhower: Soldier and President'', p. 525. Simon and Schuster. {{ISBN|0-671-74758-4}}.</ref> Although both Eisenhower and Nixon later claimed that he was merely joking with the reporter, the remark hurt Nixon, as it undercut his claims of having greater decision-making experience than Kennedy. The remark proved so damaging to Nixon that the Democrats turned Eisenhower's statement into a television commercial.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nixon's Experience? (Kennedy, 1960)|url=http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1960/nixons-experience|website=The Living Room Candidate|publisher=[[Museum of the Moving Image (New York City)|Museum of the Moving Image]]|access-date=August 25, 2016}}</ref>

At the Republican National Convention, Nixon had pledged to campaign in all fifty states. This pledge backfired when, in August, Nixon injured his knee on a car door, while campaigning in North Carolina. The knee became infected, and Nixon had to cease campaigning for two weeks, while the infection was treated with [[Antibacterial|antibiotics]]. When he left [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center|Walter Reed Hospital]], Nixon refused to abandon his pledge to visit every state; he thus wound up wasting valuable time visiting states that he had no chance of winning, that had few electoral votes and would be of little help at the election, or states that he would almost certainly win regardless. In his effort to visit all 50 states, Nixon spent the vital weekend before the election campaigning in Alaska, which had only three electoral votes, while Kennedy campaigned in more populous states such as New Jersey, Ohio, Michigan, and Pennsylvania.

Throughout the campaign, Nixon's unfriendly relations with the media, which dated back to the [[Checkers speech|"Fund" scandal]] eight years earlier, were a persistent liability to him. The Washington D.C. press corps, around 100 members, were largely liberal Democrats and by nature inclined to favor Kennedy, but Nixon often made things worse with his mutually antagonistic attitude towards them. Many of Nixon's stump speeches were filled with folksy homilies that resonated with rural and small town Americans, but were distasteful to the elitist D.C. reporters. [[Mary McGrory]] of ''[[The Washington Post]]'' said he was "just so icky, so yucky, humorless, self-righteous and smarmy." However, more important than that was the adulation the press had for Kennedy; as the campaign drew to its terminal phase, this love of the Massachusetts Senator took on an almost messianic fervor. Kennedy was expert at using this to his advantage and flattered reporters instead of arguing with them.

Nixon visited [[Atlanta]], Georgia, on August 26, and acquired a very large turnout to his event. He rode through a parade in Atlanta, and was greeted by 150,000 people.<ref>{{Cite news|title=The Nixon-Kennedy Campaigns In Georgia|last=Fleming|first=K|date=November 1960|work=The Atlanta-Journal and Constitution}}</ref> Nixon mentioned in his speech in Atlanta, "In the last quarter of a century, there hasn't been a Democratic candidate for President that has bothered to campaign in the State of Georgia."<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu">{{Cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25759|title=John F. Kennedy: Speech by Senator John F. Kennedy, the Little White House, Warm Springs, GA|website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu|access-date=2017-03-01|archive-date=March 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302031116/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25759|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, Kennedy would not let Nixon take the Democratic states that easily. Kennedy would change that statistic, and visit some surprising states, including Georgia. He visited the cities of [[Columbus, Georgia|Columbus]], [[Warm Springs, Georgia|Warm Springs]], and [[LaGrange, Georgia|LaGrange]] on his campaign trail in Georgia. In his visit to Warm Springs, state troopers tried to keep Kennedy from an immense crowd; however, Kennedy reached out to shake hands of those who were sick with [[polio]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheering Throng Engulfs Kennedy|last=Galphin|first=B|date=October 11, 1960|work=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution}}</ref> He also visited small towns across Georgia and saw a total of about 100,000 people in the state. Kennedy also spoke at a rehabilitation facility in Warm Springs. Warm Springs was near and dear to Kennedy's heart, due to the effects the facility had on [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Roosevelt spent time at the rehabilitation facility, and died there in 1945.<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu"/>

In Warm Springs, Kennedy spoke to supporters at the facility, and mentioned Roosevelt in his speech. He admired Roosevelt, and commended him for sticking up for the farmers, workers, small towns, big cities, those in poverty, and those who were sick.<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu" /> He said Roosevelt had a "spirit of strength and progress, to get America moving".<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu"/> Kennedy discussed his six-point plan for health care. He wanted a medical program set up for retirement, and federal funding for the construction of medical schools and hospitals. He also planned for the government to loan students money to attend medical school, and provide grants to renovate old hospitals. He called for more money to be spent on medical research and, finally, expand effort for rehabilitation and come up with new ways to assist those in need.<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu"/> Many Republicans disapproved of Kennedy's plans and described them as an "appeal to socialism".<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kennedy's Plans Altered: Crowd of 50,000 Is Seen|last=Gaines|first=Marion|date=October 6, 1960|work=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution}}</ref> Nevertheless, many residents of Warm Springs were supportive of Kennedy, with women wearing hats reading "Kennedy and Johnson" and<ref>{{Cite news|title=Women Dressed in Support of John F. Kennedy's Presidential Campaign, Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia|last=Johnson|first=Marion|date=October 10, 1960|work=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution}}</ref> signs around the town saying "Douglas County For Kennedy, Except 17 Republicans 6 Old Grouches".<ref>{{Cite news|title=A Sign of Votes at Warm Springs|last=Stovall|first=Hugh|date=October 11, 1960|work=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution}}</ref> Joe O. Butts, the mayor of Warm Springs during Kennedy's visit, said: "He must've shaken hands with everybody within two miles of him, and he was smiling all the time."<ref name=":1"/>

Eisenhower remained out of the fray until the general election in the fall, when it was agreed that he should take to the campaign trail in support of Nixon. The president was very much a party man, and although he had some antipathies towards his vice president, he badly wanted the White House to remain in Republican control and also feared that Kennedy was too young and inexperienced for the job. Eisenhower came out in a "cyclonic" campaign, making a series of fiery speeches in the swing states of New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania in support of Nixon and denouncing Democrat charges that he had neglected military preparedness. As the poll numbers with Kennedy narrowed to a close, Eisenhower's "fall offensive" was cut short by his own wife. [[Mamie Eisenhower]] was horrified to hear of this and became convinced that he would kill himself due to his bad heart. She phoned Nixon and told him he'd better tell the president to stop this right now, before something happened. Nixon had a luncheon with Eisenhower on October 3, but he was unable to explain exactly why his help in this campaign wasn't needed, instead clumsily beating around the bush. Eisenhower was surprised and slightly annoyed, but agreed to stop campaigning.

Despite the reservations [[Robert F. Kennedy]] had about Johnson's nomination, choosing Johnson as Kennedy's running mate proved to be a master stroke. Johnson vigorously campaigned for Kennedy, and was instrumental in helping the Democrats to carry several Southern states skeptical of him, especially Johnson's home state of Texas. Johnson made a "last-minute change of plans, and scheduled two 12-minute whistlestop speeches in Georgia".<ref>{{Cite news|title=Johnson Due in State Tonight|date=October 11, 1960|work=The Atlanta Constitution}}</ref> One of these visits included stopping in Atlanta to speak from the rear of a train at [[Terminal Station (Atlanta)|Terminal Station]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title=New President Johnson An Old Friend to Georgia|date=November 23, 1963|work=The Atlanta Constitution}}</ref> On the other hand, Ambassador Lodge, Nixon's running mate, ran a lethargic campaign and made several mistakes that hurt Nixon. Among them was a pledge, made without approval, that Nixon would name at least one African American to a [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]] post. Nixon was furious at Lodge and accused him of spending too much time campaigning with minority groups instead of the white majority.<ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=Theodore H. |title=The Making of the President, 1960 |date=2009 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=Pymble, NSW |isbn=978-0-061-98601-7 |page=297}}</ref>

Nixon's inability to carry the African-American vote was another of many missteps in his campaign. Eisenhower had scored 40% of black votes four years earlier, and Nixon assumed he would perform as well with his strong support of civil rights. However, several missteps including the Lodge "pledge" and Nixon's refusal to comment on Martin Luther King Jr.'s arrest in Atlanta harmed his support with black voters. Attempts by the Nixon campaign to counter this were not very successful as they were out-spent three to one. Ultimately, Nixon won just 30% of the black vote (compared to Eisenhower's 40%) on Election Day and strong black turnout for Kennedy in several important states including Illinois and South Carolina may have contributed to his defeat.

Nixon was endorsed by 731 English-language newspapers while Kennedy was endorsed by 208. This was the largest amount of endorsements for a Democratic presidential candidate since 1932.{{sfn|Williams|1961|p=28}}