Witchcraft

== Religious perspectives ==
{{Anchor|Historical and religious perspectives}}

===Ancient Mesopotamian religion===
{{Main|Witchcraft in the Middle East}}
Working magic was widely accepted and deeply integrated into the religion and the wider Mesopotamian society.{{r|HuttonFear|p=49}} According to Tzvi Abusch, the early stages of the development of witchcraft (''ipšū'' or ''kišpū''{{sfnp|Reiner|1995|p=97}}) in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] were "comparable to the archaic shamanistic stage of European witchcraft".{{sfnp|Abusch|2002}}{{rp|65–66}} In this early stage, witches were not necessarily considered evil, but took white and black forms and could help others using a combination of magical and medical knowledge.{{sfnp|Abusch|2002}}{{rp|65–66}} They generally lived in rural areas and sometimes exhibited ecstatic behavior,{{sfnp|Abusch|2002}}{{rp|65–66}} which was more usually associated with the ''[[ašipu]]'' (exorcist), whose main function at this stage of development was to battle non-human supernatural forces.{{sfnp|Abusch|2002}}{{rp|65–66}}

In [[ancient Mesopotamian religion]], witches (m. ''kaššāpu'', f. ''kaššāptu'', from ''kašāpu'' ['to bewitch']{{sfnp|Reiner|1995|p=97}}) eventually{{when?|date=September 2023}} came to be "regarded as an anti-social and illegitimate practitioner of destructive magic ... whose activities were motivated by malice and evil intent and who was opposed by the ''[[ašipu]]'', an exorcist or incantation-priest",{{sfnp|Abusch|2002}}{{rp|65–66}} who were predominantly male representatives of the official state religion.{{sfnp|Abusch|2002}} The individuals mentioned in records of Mesopotamian society as witches tended to be those of low status who were weak or otherwise marginalized, including women, foreigners, actors, and peddlers.{{r|HuttonFear|p=49}} 

By the time of the [[Code of Hammurabi]] (about 2000 BC), the use of magic to harm others without justification was subject to legal repercussions:

{{blockquote|If a man has put a spell upon another man and it is not justified, he upon whom the spell is laid shall go to the [[holy river]]; into the holy river shall he plunge. If the holy river overcome him and he is drowned, the man who put the spell upon him shall take possession of his house. If the holy river declares him innocent and he remains unharmed the man who laid the spell shall be put to death. He that plunged into the river shall take possession of the house of him who laid the spell upon him.<ref>The Oldest Code of Laws in the World
By C.H.W. Johns https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17150/17150-h/17150-h.htm</ref>{{efn|There is some discrepancy between translations; compare the displayed text with that of the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm article on Witchcraft] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211045956/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm |date=2021-02-11 }} (accessed 31 March 2006)<ref name=CathEnWitch>{{Cite web |date=1912-10-01 |title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Witchcraft |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm |access-date=2013-10-31 |publisher=Newadvent.org |archive-date=2021-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211045956/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/hamframe.htm L. W. King translation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070916163034/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/hamframe.htm |date=2007-09-16 }} (accessed 31 March 2006).}}}}

The ''ašipu'', in their continued efforts to suppress witchcraft,{{sfnp|Abusch|2002}} developed an [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] anti-witchcraft ritual, the [[Maqlû]], probably composed in the early first millennium BC.<ref name=abusch>{{cite book |title=The Witchcraft Series Maqlû |first=Tzvi |last=Abusch |isbn=978-1628370829 |series=Writings from the Ancient World |volume=37 |publisher=SBL Press |year=2015 |pages=5}}</ref>

===Confucianism===
{{main|Chinese shamanism}}
During the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han]] (141 BCE to 87 BCE) in the [[Western Han Dynasty]] of China, there were instances where the imperial court took measures to suppress certain religious or spiritual practices, including those associated with [[shamanism]]. Emperor Wu was known for his strong support of [[Confucianism]], which was the dominant ideology of the Han Dynasty, and he promoted policies that aimed to consolidate central authority and unify the cultural and social landscape of the empire.<ref name=Cai>{{cite book |last=Cai |first=L. |year=2014 |title=Witchcraft and the Rise of the First Confucian Empire |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1438448497}}</ref>

One notable event related to the suppression of shamanism occurred in 91 BCE, when Emperor Wu issued an edict that banned a range of "heterodox" practices, including shamanistic rituals and divination, in favor of Confucianism. The primary target of these measures was the [[Wuism]] or Wu (巫) tradition, which involved the worship of spirits and the use of shamanic practices to communicate with them. Wuism was considered by the Confucian elite to be superstitious witchcraft and at odds with Confucian principles.{{r|Cai|page=1}}

Emperor Wu's suppression of shamanism was part of a larger effort to centralize power, promote Confucian ethics, and standardize cultural practices. While the ban on shamanistic practices did impact certain communities and religious groups, these measures were not universally applied across the vast territory of the empire. Local variations and practices persisted in some regions despite imperial edicts.{{r|Cai}}

The historical record from that time is limited, and our understanding of these events can be influenced by the perspectives of the Confucian scholars and officials who documented them. As a result, there might be some variations in the interpretation of the exact nature and extent of the expulsion of shamans and other religious practitioners during Emperor Wu's reign.{{r|Cai}}

===Abrahamic religions===
Witchcraft's historical evolution in the Middle East reveals a multi-phase journey influenced by [[culture]], [[spirituality]], and societal norms. Ancient witchcraft in the Near East intertwined [[mysticism]] with nature through [[Ritual|rituals]] and [[Incantation|incantations]] aligned with local beliefs. In ancient [[Judaism]], magic had a complex relationship, with some forms accepted due to [[mysticism]]<ref>Sanhedrin 67b</ref> while others were considered [[Heresy|heretical]].<ref name=CathEnWitch /> The medieval Middle East experienced shifting perceptions of witchcraft under [[Islam|Islamic]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] influences, sometimes revered for healing and other times condemned as [[heresy]].

==== Jewish ====
{{see also|Witchcraft and divination in the Hebrew Bible}}
Jewish attitudes toward witchcraft were rooted in its association with [[idolatry]] and [[necromancy]], and some [[Rabbi|rabbis]] even practiced certain forms of magic themselves.<ref>Green, Kayla. [http://www.momentmag.com/the-golem-in-the-attic/ "The Golem in the Attic"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825231615/http://www.momentmag.com/the-golem-in-the-attic/ |date=25 August 2017 }} ''Moment''. 1 February 2011. 25 August 2017.</ref><ref name="newlife">{{cite news|first=Dan|last=Bilefsky|author-link=Dan Bilefsky|title=Hard Times Give New Life to Prague's Golem|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/11/world/europe/11golem.html|quote=According to Czech legend, the Golem was fashioned from clay and brought to life by a rabbi to protect Prague's 16th-century ghetto from persecution, and is said to be called forth in times of crisis. True to form, he is once again experiencing a revival, and in this commercial age, has spawned a one-monster industry.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=10 May 2009|access-date=19 March 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509123841/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/11/world/europe/11golem.html|archive-date=9 May 2013}}</ref> References to witchcraft in the [[Hebrew Bible|Tanakh]], or Hebrew Bible, highlighted strong condemnations rooted in the "abomination" of magical belief. [[Christianity]] similarly condemned witchcraft, considering it an abomination and even citing specific verses to justify [[Witch hunting|witch-hunting]] during the early modern period.

==== Christian ====
{{Main|Christian views on magic}}
Historically, the [[Christian views on magic|Christian concept of witchcraft]] derives from [[Old Testament]] [[biblical law|laws]] against it. In medieval and early modern Europe, many Christians believed in magic. As opposed to the helpful magic of the [[cunning folk]], witchcraft was seen as [[evil]] and associated with [[Satan]] and [[Devil worship]]. This often resulted in deaths, [[torture]] and [[scapegoating]] (casting blame for misfortune),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Russell |first=Jeffrey Burton |title=Witchcraft |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/646051/witchcraft |access-date=June 29, 2013 |website=Britannica.com |archive-date=May 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510105836/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/646051/witchcraft |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Pocs>{{cite book |last=Pócs |first=É. |year=1999 |title=Between the Living and the Dead: A Perspective on Witches and Seers in the Early Modern Age |place=Hungary |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-9639116191}}</ref>{{rp|p=9–12}} and many years of large scale [[Witch trials in the early modern period|witch-trials]] and [[witch hunt]]s, especially in [[Protestant]] Europe, before largely ending during the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. Christian views in the modern day are diverse, ranging from intense belief and opposition (especially by [[Christian fundamentalism|Christian fundamentalists]]) to non-belief. During the [[History of colonialism|Age of Colonialism]], many cultures were exposed to the Western world via [[colonialism]], usually accompanied by intensive [[Christianity and colonialism|Christian missionary activity]] (see [[Christianization#Colonial era (16th–19th centuries)|Christianization]]). In these cultures, beliefs about witchcraft were partly influenced by the prevailing Western concepts of the time.

[[File:Witches apprehended..., 1613 Wellcome M0016701.jpg|thumb|A 1613 English pamphlet showing "Witches apprehended, examined and executed"]]
In [[Christianity]], [[Sorcery (goetia)|sorcery]] came to be associated with [[heresy]] and [[apostasy]] and to be viewed as evil. Among Catholics, Protestants, and the [[secular]] leadership of late medieval/early modern Europe, fears about witchcraft rose to fever pitch and sometimes led to large-scale [[witch-hunt]]s.  The fifteenth century saw a dramatic rise in awareness and terror of witchcraft. Tens of thousands of people were executed, and others were imprisoned, tortured, banished, and had lands and possessions confiscated. The majority of those accused were women, though in some regions the majority were men.<ref name="gibbons">Gibbons, Jenny (1998) "Recent Developments in the Study of the Great European Witch Hunt" in [http://www.equinoxjournals.com/ojs/index.php/POM ''The Pomegranate''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126213600/http://www.equinoxjournals.com/ojs/index.php/POM |date=2009-01-26 }} #5, Lammas 1998.</ref><ref name=BarstowWitchcraze>{{Cite book |last=Barstow |first=Anne Llewellyn |url=https://archive.org/details/witchcrazenewhis0000bars |title=Witchcraze: A New History of the European Witch Hunts |date=1994 |publisher=Pandora |isbn=978-0062500496 |location=San Francisco |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|page=[https://archive.org/details/witchcrazenewhis0000bars/page/23 23]}} In [[Scots language|Scots]], the word [[warlock]] came to be used as the male equivalent of [[witch (word)|witch]] (which can be male or female, but is used predominantly for females).<ref>{{Cite book |last=McNeill |first=F. Marian |title=The Silver Bough: A Four Volume Study of the National and Local Festivals of Scotland |date=1957 |publisher=[[Canongate Books]] |isbn=978-0862412319 |volume=1 |location=Edinburgh}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chambers |first=Robert |title=Domestic Annals of Scotland |date=1861 |isbn=978-1298711960 |location=Edinburgh, Scotland}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sinclair |first=George |title=Satan's Invisible World Discovered |date=1871 |location=Edinburgh}}</ref>

The ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'' (Latin for 'Hammer of The Witches') was a witch-hunting manual written in 1486 by two German monks, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger. It was used by both Catholics and Protestants<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H0IAjBexFTgC&q=malleus%20maleficarum%20protestant&pg=PA27 |title=The Emergence of Modern Europe: c. 1500 to 1788 |date=2011 |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |isbn=978-1615303434 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Heather M. |page=27 |access-date=June 29, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126013251/https://books.google.com/books?id=H0IAjBexFTgC&q=malleus%20maleficarum%20protestant&pg=PA27 |url-status=live }}</ref> for several hundred years, outlining how to identify a witch, what makes a woman more likely than a man to be a witch, how to put a witch on trial, and how to punish a witch. The book defines a witch as evil and typically female. It became the handbook for secular courts throughout Europe, but was not used by the Inquisition, which even cautioned against relying on it.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jolly |first1=Karen |title=Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Middle Ages |last2=Raudvere |first2=Catharina |last3=Peters |first3=Edward |date=2002 |publisher=[[A&C Black]] |isbn=978-0485890037 |location=New York City |page=241 |quote=In 1538 the Spanish Inquisition cautioned its members not to believe everything the Malleus said, even when it presented apparently firm evidence.}}</ref> It was the most sold book in Europe for over 100 years, after the Bible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Witches|url=https://www.history.com/topics/folklore/history-of-witches|access-date=2021-10-26|website=History.com|date=20 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Islamic ====
{{Main|Islam and magic}}
Islamic perspectives on magic encompass a wide range of practices,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Savage-Smith |first= Emilie  |author-link= Emilie Savage-Smith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lZ3QgAACAAJ |title=Magic and Divination in Early Islam |date=2004 |publisher=Ashgate/Variorum |isbn=978-0860787150 |language=en |access-date=2020-08-25 |archive-date=2021-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718192648/https://books.google.com/books?id=-lZ3QgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> with belief in black magic and the [[evil eye]] coexisting alongside strict prohibitions against its practice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khaldûn |first=Ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XRCnDwAAQBAJ |title=The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History |edition= Abridged |date=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691166285 |page=578 |language=en |access-date=2021-05-04 |archive-date=2021-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718192648/https://books.google.com/books?id=XRCnDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Quran]] acknowledges the existence of magic and seeks protection from its harm. Islam's stance is against the practice of magic, considering it forbidden, and emphasizes divine [[Miracle|miracles]] rather than magic or witchcraft.<ref>Savage-Smith, Emilie, ed. Magic and divination in early Islam. Routledge, 2021. p. 87</ref> The historical continuity of witchcraft in the Middle East underlines the complex interaction between spiritual beliefs and societal norms across different cultures and [[Epoch|epochs]].

=== Modern paganism ===
{{anchor|Neopagan witchcraft}}
{{Main|Neopagan witchcraft|Semitic neopaganism}}
During the 20th century, interest in witchcraft rose in English-speaking and European countries. From the 1920s, [[Margaret Murray]] popularized the '[[witch-cult hypothesis]]': the idea that those [[Witch trials in the early modern period|persecuted as 'witches' in early modern Europe]] were followers of a benevolent [[Paganism|pagan]] religion that had survived the [[Christianization]] of Europe. This has been discredited by further historical research.{{r|AdlerDrawing|p=45–47, 84–85}}{{r|HuttonFear|p=121}}<ref>Rose, Elliot, ''A Razor for a Goat'', [[University of Toronto Press]], 1962.</ref><ref name=HuttonBritish>Hutton, Ronald, ''The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles'', [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge, Mass.]]: [[Blackwell Publishers]], 1993. </ref><ref name=HuttonTriumph>Hutton, Ronald, ''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1999.{{ISBN?}}</ref> 

From the 1930s, [[occult]] [[neopagan]] groups began to emerge who called their religion a kind of 'witchcraft'. They were [[initiation|initiatory]] [[secret society|secret societies]] inspired by Murray's 'witch cult' theory, [[ceremonial magic]], [[Aleister Crowley]]'s [[Thelema]], and historical paganism.{{r|HuttonTriumph|p=205–252}}<ref>Kelly, A.A., ''Crafting the Art of Magic, Book I: a History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939–1964'', Minnesota: [[Llewellyn Publications]], 1991.{{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>Valiente, D., ''The Rebirth of Witchcraft'', London: Robert Hale, pp. 35–62, 1989.{{ISBN?}}</ref> The biggest religious movement to emerge from this is [[Wicca]]. Today, some Wiccans and members of related traditions self-identify as "witches" and use the term "witchcraft" for their [[magico-religious]] beliefs and practices, primarily in [[Western world|Western]] [[Anglosphere|anglophone countries]].<ref name="Doyle White 1">{{cite book |last=Doyle White |first=Ethan |title=Wicca: History, Belief, and Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft |publisher=Liverpool University Press |pages=1–9, 73 |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-84519-754-4 }}</ref>