Philosophy

=== Indian ===
{{main|Indian philosophy}}

One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the [[Spirituality|spiritual]] question of how to reach [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|p=3}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} }}</ref> It started around 900 BCE when the [[Vedas]] were written. They are the foundational scriptures of [[Hinduism]] and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|self]] and [[Brahman|ultimate reality]] as well as the question of how [[Jiva|souls]] are reborn based on their [[Karma|past actions]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Pooley|Rothenbuhler|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eY_2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1468 1468]}} |4={{harvnb|Andrea|Overfield|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 71]}} }}</ref> This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref name="auto1">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Ruether|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MQFvAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }}</ref> Buddhism was founded by [[Gautama Siddhartha]] (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a [[Anicca|permanent self]] and proposed [[Noble Eightfold Path|a path]] to liberate oneself from [[Duḥkha|suffering]].<ref name="auto1"/> Jainism was founded by [[Mahavira]] (599–527 BCE), who emphasized [[ahiṃsā|non-violence]] as well as respect toward all forms of life.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Vallely|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B105DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA609 609–610]}} |3={{harvnb|Gorisse|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref>

The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE{{efn|The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z02WEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 324]}} | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview}} | {{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gH6JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT77 77]}} }}</ref>}} and was characterized by the emergence of the six [[Astika|orthodox schools of Hinduism]]: [[Nyaya|Nyāyá]], [[Vaiśeṣika]], [[Sāṃkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy, The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gH6JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT77 77]}} |3={{harvnb|Adamson|Ganeri|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NCbTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 101–102]}} }}</ref> The school of [[Advaita Vedanta]] developed later in this period. It was systematized by [[Adi Shankara]] ({{circa|700}}–750 CE), who held that [[Monism|everything is one]] and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an [[Maya (religion)|illusion]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead Section, 2. Metaphysics}} |3={{harvnb|Menon|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> A slightly different perspective was defended by [[Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE),{{efn|These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=1. Rāmānuja's Life and Works}}}} who founded the school of [[Vishishtadvaita Vedanta]] and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=Lead Section, 2c. Substantive Theses}} He also helped to popularize the [[Bhakti movement]], which taught [[Bhakti|devotion toward the divine]] as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ranganathan|loc=4. Rāmānuja's Soteriology}} |2={{harvnb|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC&pg=PA139 139]}} |3={{harvnb|Seshadri|1996|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4403749 297]}} |4={{harvnb|Jha|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4gdoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217]}} }}</ref> The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Modern Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2023}} }}</ref> Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, [[Swami Vivekananda]] (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Banhatti|1995|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jK5862eV7_EC&pg=PA151 151–154]}} |2={{harvnb|Bilimoria|2018|pp=529–531}} |3={{harvnb|Rambachan|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b9EJBQG3zqUC&pg=PA91 91–92]}} }}</ref>