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PreviewAdvancedSpecial charactersHelpHeadingLevel 2Level 3Level 4Level 5FormatInsertLatinLatin extendedIPASymbolsGreekGreek extendedCyrillicArabicArabic extendedHebrewBanglaTamilTeluguSinhalaDevanagariGujaratiThaiLaoKhmerCanadian AboriginalRunesÁáÀàÂâÄäÃãǍǎĀāĂ㥹ÅåĆćĈĉÇçČčĊċĐđĎďÉéÈèÊêËëĚěĒēĔĕĖėĘęĜĝĢģĞğĠġĤĥĦħÍíÌìÎîÏïĨĩǏǐĪīĬĭİıĮįĴĵĶķĹĺĻļĽľŁłŃńÑñŅņŇňÓóÒòÔôÖöÕõǑǒŌōŎŏǪǫŐőŔŕŖŗŘřŚśŜŝŞşŠšȘșȚțŤťÚúÙùÛûÜüŨũŮůǓǔŪūǖǘǚǜŬŭŲųŰűŴŵÝýŶŷŸÿȲȳŹźŽžŻżÆæǢǣØøŒœßÐðÞþƏəFormattingLinksHeadingsListsFilesDiscussionReferencesDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getItalic''Italic text''Italic textBold'''Bold text'''Bold textBold & italic'''''Bold & italic text'''''Bold & italic textDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getReferencePage text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>Page text.[1]Named referencePage text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>Page text.[2]Additional use of the same referencePage text.<ref name="test" />Page text.[2]Display references<references />↑ Link text, additional text.↑ Link text==Canal== ===Layout=== {{Panama Canal map}} [[File:Panama Canal - Pacific Side Entrance.jpg|thumb|Pacific Side entrance]] [[File:Administration Building, Panama Canal.jpg|thumb|Administration Building]] While globally the Atlantic Ocean is east of the isthmus and the Pacific is west, the general direction of the canal passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific is from northwest to southeast, because of the shape of the isthmus at the point the canal occupies. The [[Bridge of the Americas]] ({{lang-es|Puente de las Américas}}) at the Pacific side is about a third of a degree east of the [[Colón, Panama|Colón]] end on the Atlantic side.<ref name="acptraffic">{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/maritime/reports/table01.pdf |title=Panama Canal Traffic—Fiscal Years 2002–2004 |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |access-date=2007-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051201144112/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/maritime/reports/table01.pdf |archive-date=2005-12-01 }}</ref> Still, in formal nautical communications, the simplified directions "southbound" and "northbound" are used. The canal consists of [[reservoir|artificial lakes]], several improved and artificial channels, and three sets of [[canal lock|locks]]. An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake (known during the American era as Madden Lake), acts as a reservoir for the canal. The layout of the canal as seen by a ship passing from the Atlantic to the Pacific is:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://historicals.ncd.noaa.gov/historicals/histmap.asp |title=Historical Map & Chart Project |access-date=2007-09-03 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070905231130/http://historicals.ncd.noaa.gov/historicals/histmap.asp |archive-date=2007-09-05 }}</ref> <!-- These distances are measured as accurately as I can from a 1940 nautical chart of the canal—U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey no. 955, May 1940. See the reference above. ~~~~ --> * From the formal marking line of the Atlantic Entrance, one enters Limón Bay (Bahía Limón), a large natural harbor. The entrance runs {{convert|5+1/2|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}}. It provides a deepwater port ([[Cristóbal, Colón|Cristóbal]]), with facilities like multimodal cargo exchange (to and from train) and the [[Colón Free Trade Zone]] (a [[free port]]). * A {{convert|3.2|km|mi|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} channel forms the approach to the locks from the Atlantic side. * The Gatun Locks, a three-stage flight of locks {{convert|1+1/4|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} long, lifts ships to the Gatun Lake level, some {{convert|87|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} above sea level. * Gatun Lake, an artificial lake formed by the building of the Gatun Dam, carries vessels {{convert|15|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} across the isthmus. It is the summit canal stretch, fed by the Gatun River and emptied by basic lock operations. * From the lake, the Chagres River, a natural waterway enhanced by the damming of Gatun Lake, runs about {{convert|5+1/4|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}}. Here the upper Chagres River feeds the high-level-canal stretch. * The [[Culebra Cut]] slices {{convert|7+3/4|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} through the mountain ridge, crosses the [[continental divide]] and passes under the [[Centennial Bridge, Panama|Centennial Bridge]]. * The single-stage Pedro Miguel Lock, which is {{convert|7/8|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} long, is the first part of the descent with a lift of {{convert|31|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}}. * The artificial [[Miraflores Lake]] {{convert|1+1/8|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} long, and {{convert|54|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]]. * The two-stage [[Miraflores (Panama)|Miraflores]] Locks is {{convert|1+1/8|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} long, with a total descent of {{convert|54|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} at mid-tide. * From the Miraflores Locks one reaches [[Balboa, Panama|Balboa]] harbor, again with multimodal exchange provision (here the railway meets the shipping route again). Nearby is [[Panama City]]. * From this harbor an entrance/exit channel leads to the Pacific Ocean ([[Gulf of Panama]]), {{convert|8+1/4|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from the Miraflores Locks, passing under the [[Bridge of the Americas]]. Thus, the total length of the canal is {{convert|50|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}}. In 2017 it took ships an average of 11.38 hours to pass between the canal's two outer locks.<ref name="ACP">{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/general/reporte-anual/2017-AnnualReport.pdf |title=Annual Report 2017 |website=Panama Canal Authority |access-date=2021-04-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403001241/https://www.pancanal.com/eng/general/reporte-anual/2017-AnnualReport.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-03}}</ref> ===Navigation=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! Point ! [[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]<br />(links to map & photo sources)<br />{{GeoGroup|section=Layout}} ! Notes |- | Atlantic Entrance | {{Coord|9.38743|N|79.91863|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Atlantic Entrance}} || |- | Gatún Locks | {{Coord|9.27215|N|79.92266|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Gatún Locks}} || |- | Trinidad Turn | {{Coord|9.20996|N|79.92408|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Trinidad Turn}} | In "The Cut" |- | Bohío Turn | {{Coord|9.17831|N|79.86667|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Bohío Turn}} | In "The Cut" |- | Orchid Turn | {{Coord|9.18406|N|79.84513|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Orchid Turn}} | In "The Cut" |- | Frijoles Turn | {{Coord|9.15904|N|79.81362|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Frijoles Turn}} | In "The Cut" |- | Barbacoa Turn | {{Coord|9.12053|N|79.80395|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Barbacoa Turn}} | In "The Cut" |- | Mamei Turn | {{Coord|9.11161|N|79.76856|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Mamei Turn}} | In "The Cut" |- | Gamboa Reach | {{Coord|9.11774|N|79.72257|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Gamboa Reach}} || |- | Bas Obispo Reach | {{Coord|9.09621|N|79.68446|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Bas Obispo Reach}} || |- | Las Cascadas Reach | {{Coord|9.07675|N|79.67492|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Las Cascadas Reach}} || |- | Empire Reach | {{Coord|9.06104|N|79.66309|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Empire Reach}} || |- | Culebra Reach | {{Coord|9.04745|N|79.65017|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Culebra Reach}} || |- | Cucaracha Reach | {{Coord|9.03371|N|79.63736|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Cucaracha Reach}} || |- | Paraiso Reach | {{Coord|9.02573|N|79.62492|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Paraiso Reach}} || |- | Pedro Miguel Locks | {{Coord|9.01698|N|79.61281|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Pedro Miguel Locks}} || |- | Miraflores Lake | {{Coord|9.00741|N|79.60254|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Miraflores Lake}} || |- | Miraflores Locks | {{Coord|8.99679|N|79.59182|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Miraflores Locks}} || |- | Balboa Reach | {{Coord|8.97281|N|79.57771|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Balboa Reach}} || |- | Pacific Entrance | {{Coord|8.88846|N|79.52145|W|region:PA_type:landmark|name=Pacific Entrance}} || |} ===Gatun Lake=== [[File:Gatun Lake.jpg|thumb|[[Gatun Lake]] provides the water used to raise and lower vessels in the Canal, gravity fed into each set of locks]] Created in 1913 by damming the [[Chagres River]], the [[Gatun Lake]] is a key part of the Panama Canal, providing the millions of liters of water necessary to operate its locks each time a ship passes through. At time of formation, Gatun Lake was the largest human-made lake in the world. ===Lock size=== {{Main|Panama Canal locks}}Because of the importance of the canal to international trade, many ships are built to the maximum size allowed.[[File:Gatun lock gate.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Miter [[Lock (water transport)|lock]] gate at Gatún]] For its first century, the width and length of ships that may transit the canal was limited by the Pedro Miguel Locks; their [[Draft (hull)|draft]] by the canal's minimum {{convert|41.2|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} depth; and their height by the main span of the Bridge of the Americas at Balboa. Ships built to those limits are known as [[Panamax]] vessels. A Panamax cargo ship typically has a [[deadweight tonnage]] (DWT) of 65,000–80,000 [[tonnes|tons]], but its actual cargo is restricted to about 52,500 tons because of the canal's [[Draft (hull)|draft]] restrictions within the canal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lr.org/Images/30%20ship%20sizes_tcm155-173543.pdf |title=Infosheet No. 30: Modern ship size definitions |date=26 July 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224003817/http://www.lr.org/Images/30%20ship%20sizes_tcm155-173543.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-24 |work=Lloyd's Register}}</ref> The longest ship ever to transit the canal was the ''San Juan Prospector'' (now ''Marcona Prospector''), an [[ore-bulk-oil carrier]] that is {{convert|973|ft|m|2|abbr=on|order=flip}} long with a [[beam (nautical)|beam]] of {{convert|106|ft|m|2|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Professional Resources in Science and Mathematics (PRISM) |url=https://www.montclair.edu/prism/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |language=en-US}}</ref> Initially the locks at Gatun were designed to be {{convert|28.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide. In 1908, the [[United States Navy]] requested that the width be increased to at least {{convert|36|m|ft|abbr=on}} to allow the passage of large warships. A compromise was made and the locks were built {{convert|33.53|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide. Each lock is {{convert|320|m|ft|abbr=on}} long, with the walls ranging in thickness from {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the base to {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top. The central wall between the parallel locks at Gatun is {{convert|18|m|ft|abbr=on}} thick and over {{convert|24|m|ft|abbr=on}} high. The steel lock gates measure an average of {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} thick, {{convert|19.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide, and {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eclipse.co.uk/~sl5763/panama.htm |title=The Panama Canal |access-date=2007-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515050735/http://www.eclipse.co.uk/~sl5763/panama.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Panama Canal pilots were initially unprepared to handle the flight decks of [[aircraft carrier]]s, which protrude beyond the hull on either side of the ship. When {{USS|Saratoga|CV-3|6}} made her first trip through the Gatun Locks in 1928, the ship knocked over all the concrete lamp posts along the canal.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pride |first=Alfred M. |year=1986 |title=Pilots, Man Your Planes |journal=Proceedings |volume=Supplement |issue=April |pages=28–35 |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]] }}</ref> In 2016, a [[Panama Canal expansion project|decade-long expansion project]] created larger locks, allowing bigger ships to transit through deeper and wider channels.<ref name="AP 2016" /> The allowed dimensions of ships using these locks increased by 25 percent in length, 51 percent in beam, and 26 percent in draft, as defined by [[Panamax#New Panamax|Neopanamax]] metrics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pancanal.com/common/maritime/advisories/2009/a-02-2009.pdf |title=New Panamax publication by ACP |date=November 2006 |access-date=2010-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506230338/http://www.pancanal.com/common/maritime/advisories/2009/a-02-2009.pdf |archive-date=May 6, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Tolls=== [[File:Ship passing through Panama Canal 01.jpg|right|thumb|[[Roll-on/roll-off]] ships, such as this one at [[Miraflores (Panama)|Miraflores locks]], are among the largest ships to pass through the canal.]] As with a [[toll road]], vessels transiting the canal must pay tolls. Tolls for the canal are set by the [[Panama Canal Authority]] and are based on vessel type, size, and the type of cargo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/tariff/index.html |title=Marine Tariff |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |access-date=June 3, 2014 |archive-date=August 2, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802022239/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/tariff/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> For [[container ship]]s, the toll is assessed on the ship's capacity expressed in [[twenty-foot equivalent unit]]s (TEUs), one TEU being the size of a standard [[intermodal shipping container]]. Effective April 1, 2016, this toll went from US$74 per loaded container to $60 per TEU capacity plus $30 per loaded container for a potential $90 per TEU when the ship is full. A Panamax container ship may carry up to {{TEU|4,400}}. The toll is calculated differently for passenger ships and for container ships carrying no cargo ("in ballast"). {{As of|2016|04|01|df=US}}, the ballast rate is US$60, down from US$65.60 per TEU. Passenger vessels in excess of 30,000 tons (PC/UMS) pay a rate based on the number of berths, that is, the number of passengers that can be accommodated in permanent beds. Since April 1, 2016, the per-berth charge is $111 for unoccupied berths and $138 for occupied berths in the Panamax locks. Starting in 2007, this fee has greatly increased the tolls for such ships.<ref>Panama Canal Toll Table http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/tariff/1010-0000-Rev20160414.pdf{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Passenger vessels of less than 30,000 tons or less than 33 tons per passenger are charged according to the same per-ton schedule as are freighters. Almost all major cruise ships have more than 33 tons per passenger; the rule of thumb for cruise line comfort is generally given as a minimum of 40 tons per passenger. Most other types of vessels pay a toll per [[tonnage|PC/UMS net ton]], in which one "ton" is actually a volume of {{convert|100|cuft|m3|2}}. (The calculation of [[tonnage]] for commercial vessels is quite complex.) {{As of|2016|alt=As of fiscal year 2016}}, this toll is US$5.25 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, US$5.14 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and US$5.06 per ton thereafter. As with container ships, reduced tolls are charged for freight ships "in ballast", $4.19, $4.12, $4.05 respectively. On April 1, 2016, a more complicated toll system was introduced, having the neopanamax locks at a higher rate in some cases, natural gas transport as a new separate category and other changes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/tariff/index.html|title=Maritime Services - PanCanal.com|website=www.pancanal.com|access-date=June 3, 2014|archive-date=August 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802022239/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/tariff/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As of October 1, 2017, there are modified tolls and categories of tolls in effect.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pancanal.com/peajes/pdf/2018/2018-ApprovedTolls.pdf |website=[[Panama Canal Authority]] |title=Toll Tariffs Approved By Cabinet Council And Published On The Official Gazzette. Implementation: October 1, 2017 (Fy 2018) |access-date=September 26, 2017 |archive-date=September 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927052651/http://www.pancanal.com/peajes/pdf/2018/2018-ApprovedTolls.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Small (less than 125 ft) vessels up to 583 PC/UMS net tons when carrying passengers or cargo, or up to 735 PC/UMS net tons when in ballast, or up to 1,048 fully loaded displacement tons, are assessed minimum tolls based upon their [[length overall]], according to the following table (as of April 29, 2015): {| class="wikitable" |- ! Length of vessel ! Toll |- | Up to {{convert|15.240|m|ft|0|sp=us}} || US$800 |- | From {{convert|15.240|to|24.384|m|ft|0|sp=us}} || US$1,300 |- | From {{convert|24.384|to|30.480|m|ft|0|sp=us}} || US$2,000 |- | More than {{convert|30.480|m|ft|0|sp=us}} || US$3,200 |- | INTRA MARITIME CLUSTER – Local Tourism<br />More than {{convert|24.384|m|ft|0|sp=us}} || US$2,000<br />plus $72/TEU |} Morgan Adams of Los Angeles, California, holds the distinction of paying the first toll received by the U.S. government for the use of the Panama Canal by a pleasure boat. His boat ''Lasata'' passed through the Zone on August 14, 1914. The crossing occurred during a {{convert|6000|mi|km|order=flip|sp=us|sigfig=1|abbr=off|adj=on}} sea voyage from Jacksonville, Florida, to Los Angeles in 1914.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-11 |title=The Panama Canal - All You Need to Know |url=https://panamapassion.com/the-panama-canal-all-you-need-to-know/ |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=Panama Passion |language=en-US}}</ref> The most expensive regular toll for canal passage to date was charged on April 14, 2010, to the cruise ship ''[[Norwegian Pearl]],'' which paid US$375,600.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/panama-canal-61272.html|date=<!-- none given -->|access-date=2012-08-03|title=US Today Travel: Panama Canal Facts|work=USA Today|archive-date=February 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217025241/http://traveltips.usatoday.com/panama-canal-61272.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2008-06-24|title=ACP rectifica récord en pago de peaje|publisher=La Prensa|url=http://mensual.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2008/06/24/hoy/negocios/1416962.html|access-date=2009-08-08|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816182550/http://mensual.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2008/06/24/hoy/negocios/1416962.html|archive-date=August 16, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> The average toll is around US$54,000. The highest fee for priority passage charged through the [[Congestion pricing#Panama Canal booking system and auction|Transit Slot Auction System]] was US$220,300, paid on August 24, 2006, by the Panamax [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] ''Erikoussa'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ediciones.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2007/04/24/hoy/negocios/960466.html|title=''Récord en pago de peajes y reserva''|work=La Prensa|publisher=Ediciones.prensa.com|date=2007-04-24|access-date=2009-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006110958/http://ediciones.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2007/04/24/hoy/negocios/960466.html|archive-date=October 6, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> bypassing a 90-ship queue waiting for the end of maintenance work on the [[Panama Canal Locks|Gatun Locks]], and thus avoiding a seven-day delay. The normal fee would have been just US$13,430.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mensual.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2006/08/25/hoy/negocios/714407.html |title=''Cupo de subasta del Canal alcanza récord''. La Prensa. Sección Economía & Negocios. Edición 25 August 2006 in Spanish |publisher=Mensual.prensa.com |access-date=2009-07-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803154550/http://mensual.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2006/08/25/hoy/negocios/714407.html |archive-date= 3 August 2009 }}</ref> The lowest toll ever paid was 36 cents ({{Inflation|US|0.36|1928|r=2|fmt=eq}}), by American [[Richard Halliburton]] who swam the Panama Canal in 1928.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/general/canal-faqs/tolls.html|title=About ACP - PanCanal.com|publisher=Panama Canal Authority|access-date=8 October 2014|archive-date=November 27, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151127210411/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/general/canal-faqs/tolls.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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