Interpersonal relationship

=== Family relationships ===

==== Parent{{En dash}}child ====
In ancient times, parent{{En dash}}child relationships were often marked by fear, either of rebellion or abandonment, resulting in the strict filial roles in, for example, ancient Rome and China.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of Ancient Greece: Its Colonies and Conquests, from the Earliest Accounts Till the Division of the Macedonian Empire in the East: ... of Literature, Philosophy, and the Fine Arts|last=Gillies|first=John | name-list-style = vanc |date=2010-01-12|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-142-12050-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holzman|first=Donald | name-list-style = vanc |date=1998|title=The Place of Filial Piety in Ancient China|jstor=605890|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=118|issue=2|pages=185–199|doi=10.2307/605890}}</ref> Freud conceived of the [[Oedipus complex|Oedipal complex]], the supposed obsession that young boys have towards their mothers and the accompanying fear and rivalry with their fathers, and the [[Electra complex]], in which the young girl feels that her mother has castrated her and therefore becomes obsessed with her father. Freud's ideas influenced thought on parent{{En dash}}child relationships for decades.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Borovecki-Jakovljev S, Matacić S | title = The Oedipus complex in the contemporary psychoanalysis | journal = Collegium Antropologicum | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 351–60 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 16117347 }}</ref>

Another early conception of parent–child relationships was that love only existed as a biological drive for survival and comfort on the child's part.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koepke |first1=Sabrina |last2=Denissen |first2=Jaap J.A. |title=Dynamics of identity development and separation–individuation in parent–child relationships during adolescence and emerging adulthood – A conceptual integration |journal=Developmental Review |date=March 2012 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=67–88 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2012.01.001 }}</ref> In 1958, however, [[Harry Harlow]]<nowiki>'s study " The Hot Wire Mother'' comparing rhesus'</nowiki> reactions to wire surrogate "mothers" and cloth "mothers" demonstrated that affection was wanted by any caregiver and not only the surrogate mothers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harlow |first1=Harry F. |title=The nature of love |journal=American Psychologist |date=December 1958 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=673–685 |doi=10.1037/h0047884 }}</ref>

The study laid the groundwork for [[Mary Ainsworth]]'s [[attachment theory]], showing how the infants used their cloth "mothers" as a secure base from which to explore.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blum|first=Deborah | name-list-style = vanc |date=2011-12-28|title=Love According to Harry Harlow | url = https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/love-according-to-harry-harlow|journal=APS Observer |volume=25|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Suomi SJ, van der Horst FC, van der Veer R | title = Rigorous experiments on monkey love: an account of Harry F. Harlow's role in the history of attachment theory | journal = Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 354–69 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18688688 | doi = 10.1007/s12124-008-9072-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In a series of studies using the ''strange situation'', a scenario in which an infant is separated from then reunited with the parent, Ainsworth defined three styles of parent-child relationship.
* '''Securely attached''' infants miss the parent, greet them happily upon return, and show normal exploration and lack of fear when the parent is present.
* '''Insecure avoidant''' infants show little distress upon separation and ignore the caregiver when they return. They explore little when the parent is present. Infants also tend to be emotionally unavailable.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stevens |first=Francis |title=Affect regulation styles in avoidant and anxious attachment |journal=Individual Differences Research |volume=12 |issue=3 |date=2014 |pages=123–130 }}</ref>
* '''Insecure ambivalent''' infants are highly distressed by separation, but continue to be distressed upon the parent's return; these infants also explore little and display fear even when the parent is present.
* Some psychologists have suggested a fourth attachment style, '''disorganized''', so called because the infants' behavior appeared disorganized or disoriented.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention|date=1993-05-15|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-30630-8|editor-last=Greenberg|editor-first=Mark T.|edition=Revised|location=Chicago|editor-last2=Cicchetti|editor-first2=Dante|editor-last3=Cummings|editor-first3=E. Mark | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref>

Secure attachments are linked to better social and academic outcomes and greater moral internalization as research proposes the idea that parent-child relationships play a key role in the developing morality of young children. Secure attachments are also linked to less delinquency for children, and have been found to predict later relationship success.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim S, Boldt LJ, Kochanska G | title = From parent-child mutuality to security to socialization outcomes: developmental cascade toward positive adaptation in preadolescence | journal = Attachment & Human Development | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 472–91 | date = 2015 | pmid = 26258443 | pmc = 4840872 | doi = 10.1080/14616734.2015.1072832 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kochanska G, Kim S | title = A complex interplay among the parent-child relationship, effortful control, and internalized, rule-compatible conduct in young children: evidence from two studies | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–21 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 23527491 | pmc = 3750102 | doi = 10.1037/a0032330 }}</ref><ref name="Gibson_2015" />

For most of the late nineteenth through the twentieth century, the perception of adolescent-parent relationships was that of a time of upheaval. [[G. Stanley Hall]] popularized the "Sturm und drang", or storm and stress, model of adolescence.<ref>Karthaus, Ulrich: Sturm und Drang. Epoche-Werke-Wirkung. München: C.H.Beck Verlag, 2. aktualisierte Auflage. 2007, S. 107.</ref> Psychological research has painted a much tamer picture. Although adolescents are more risk-seeking and emerging adults have higher suicide rates, they are largely less volatile and have much better relationships with their parents than the storm and stress model would suggest<ref>{{cite journal | first1 = Willem | last1 = Koops | first2 = Michael | last2 = Zuckerman | name-list-style = vanc | date=2003-01-01|title=Introduction: A historical developmental approach to adolescence |journal=The History of the Family|volume=8|issue=3|pages=345–354|doi=10.1016/S1081-602X(03)00041-1 | s2cid = 144062880 }}</ref> Early adolescence often marks a decline in parent-child relationship quality, which then re-stabilizes through adolescence, and relationships are sometimes better in late adolescence than prior to its onset.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marceau K, Ram N, Susman E | title = Development and Lability in the Parent-Child Relationship During Adolescence: Associations With Pubertal Timing and Tempo | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 474–489 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26321856 | pmc = 4550307 | doi = 10.1111/jora.12139 }}</ref> With the increasing average age at marriage and more youths attending college and living with parents past their teens, the concept of a new period called emerging adulthood gained popularity. This is considered a period of uncertainty and experimentation between adolescence and adulthood. During this stage, interpersonal relationships are considered to be more self-focused, and relationships with parents may still be influential.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Jeffrey Jensen | name-list-style = vanc |title=Presidential Address: The Emergence of Emerging Adulthood |journal=Emerging Adulthood|volume=2|issue=3|pages=155–162|doi=10.1177/2167696814541096|year=2014 |s2cid=143471902 }}</ref>

==== Siblings ====
Sibling relationships have a profound effect on social, psychological, emotional, and academic outcomes. Although proximity and contact usually decreases over time, sibling bonds continue to have effect throughout their lives. Sibling bonds are one of few enduring relationships humans may experience. Sibling relationships are affected by parent-child relationships, such that sibling relationships in childhood often reflect the positive or negative aspects of children's relationships with their parents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Portner|first1=Laura Collier|last2=Riggs|first2=Shelley A. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Sibling Relationships in Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Parent–Child Relationship |journal=Journal of Child and Family Studies|volume=25|issue=6|pages=1755–1764|doi=10.1007/s10826-015-0358-5|year=2016|s2cid=147667305}}</ref>