Doctor of Science

== Europe ==

=== Austria, Germany, and Switzerland ===
In Germany, Austria, and the [[German-speaking Switzerland|German-speaking part]] of Switzerland, the most common doctoral degrees in [[Natural Sciences]] are the following:
* [[Dr. rer. nat.]]: Doctor rerum naturalium, literally "Doctor of the things of nature"
* Dr rer. medic.: Doctor rerum medicarum, Doctor of medical sciences
* Dr. sc. med.: Doctor scientiarum medicarum, Doctor of science in medicine
* Dr sc. nat.: Doktor der Naturwissenschaften, Doctor of [[Natural Sciences]]
* Dr sc. ETH: Doktor der Naturwissenschaften ETH, Doctor of Natural Sciences, awarded by [[ETH Zurich]], Switzerland.
* Dr phil. nat.: Doctor philosophiae naturalis, used only by [[Goethe University Frankfurt]] instead of Dr rer. nat; Doctor of Natural Sciences, awarded by Swiss universities.
* [[Dr.-Ing.]]: Doktor der Ingenieurwissenschaften (Doctor of Engineering), awarded by German universities in areas of technology and engineering.
* Dr mont.: Doctor rerum montanarum, awarded by the [[University of Leoben]] instead of Dr techn.
* Dr techn.: Doctor technicae, awarded by Austrian technical universities.
* Dr nat. techn.: Doctor rerum naturalium technicarum, awarded by the [[University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna]] instead of Dr techn.

In these countries there are some related doctoral degrees with very similar names, these are the:

* Dr sc. agr.: Doctor scientiarum agrariarum, Doctor of [[Agricultural science]]
* Dr sc. hum.: Doctor scientiarum humanarum, Doctor of [[Humanistic]] Sciences
* Dr sc. inf.: Doctor scientiarum informaticarum, Doctor of Science in [[Informatics (academic field)|Informatics]]
* Dr sc. inf.med.: Doctor scientiarum informaticarum medicæ, Doctor of Science in [[Medical Informatics]]
* Dr sc. inf.biomed.: Doctor scientiarum informaticarum biomedicæ, Doctor of Science in [[Biomedicine|Biomedical]] Informatics
* Dr sc. math.: Doctor scientiarum mathematicarum, Doctor of [[Mathematics]]
* Dr scient. med.: Doctor scientiæ medicæ, Doctor of [[Medicine|Medical]] Sciences
* Dr sc. mus.: Doctor scientiae musicae, Doctor of [[Musicology]]
* Dr sc. oec.: Doctor scientiarum oeconomicarum, Doctor of [[Economics]]
* Dr sc. pol.: Doctor scientiarum politicarum, Doctor of [[Political Sciences]]
* Dr rer. pol.: Doctor rerum politicarum, Doctor of economics, business administration, or political science
* Dr sc. soc.: Doctor scientiae socialis, Doctor of [[Social Sciences]]

All of these doctoral degrees are equivalent to the PhD or ScD of the American system. Until [[German Reunification]], universities in East Germany also awarded the DrSc. However, the East German DrSc was not equivalent to the PhD since it was adopted to replace the German [[Habilitation]] and therefore was equivalent to this higher-level qualification. After reunification the Habilitation was reintroduced at universities in Eastern Germany.

The procedure of [[habilitation]] is normally required to receive officially the "venia docendi", which entitles the candidate to lecture at universities (''[[Privatdozent]]'', for men, or ''Privatdozentin'', for women). The academic degree after the successful habilitation is e.g. Dr. rer.nat. habil., by adding the suffix "habil." to the earlier received Doctors degree.

In Switzerland, the Dr sc. is a doctoral degree awarded only by the two [[Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Domain|Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology]] ([[Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne|EPFL]] and [[Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich|ETHZ]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archiv.ethlife.ethz.ch/articles/news/DoktortitelNeu.html|title=News: ETH Life - das tägliche Webjournal|website=archiv.ethlife.ethz.ch|access-date=28 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20120425155756/http://archiv.ethlife.ethz.ch/articles/news/DoktortitelNeu.html|archive-date=25 April 2012}}</ref> the [[University of Fribourg]] and the Department of Informatics of the [[University of Zurich]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifi.uzh.ch/teaching/studiengaenge/phd/red-tape/PVO_DInf08.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-04-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190722/http://www.ifi.uzh.ch/teaching/studiengaenge/phd/red-tape/PVO_DInf08.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-29 }}</ref> The Swiss Dr sc., like the DSc in the US, is equivalent to the PhD. It is earned with the approval of a committee on the basis of original research, publications, and extensive applied professional contributions and is awarded in doctoral level science and technology programs. Since 2004 the Dr sc. is the only doctoral degree awarded by the [[ETH Zurich]]. The {{Lang|fr|[[École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne]]|italic=no}} awards the degree ''Docteur ès sciences'', abbreviated ''Dr ès sc.''and translated into English as PhD.<ref>[https://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19994202/index.html Ordinance on the doctorate conferred by the École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114212448/https://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19994202/index.html |date=2018-01-14 }} ([https://polylex.epfl.ch/files/content/sites/polylex/files/recueil_pdf/ENG/2.4.0.1_ordinance%20EDOC%20final_ANGL.pdf English translation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428003645/https://polylex.epfl.ch/files/content/sites/polylex/files/recueil_pdf/ENG/2.4.0.1_ordinance%20EDOC%20final_ANGL.pdf |date=2018-04-28 }}), [[Federal Chancellery of Switzerland]], 1 September 2008 (page visited on 5 July 2017).</ref>

=== Poland ===
In Poland "Doctor of Sciences" or "Habilitation" ({{lang|pl|doktor habilitowany}} or {{lang|pl|dr hab.}} in Polish) is the degree higher than PhD and it is awarded for substantial accomplishments in teaching, research and service after getting the PhD degree (usually up to 8 years after PhD). It is very similar to the equivalent habilitation degree in Germany and Austria. It is also very similar (in terms of requirements) to associate professor with tenure.

The highest scientific degree in Poland is "professorship" or "full professor" ({{lang|pl|tytuł naukowy profesora, profesor tytularny}}), which is called a scientific title of professor. "Habilitation" has been a mandatory requirement for many years to apply for full professorship in Poland.

=== United Kingdom, Ireland, India, Pakistan and the Commonwealth ===
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In Ireland, the United Kingdom and the countries of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], such as Australia and India (in the [[Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay]]), the degree of Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) is one of the [[Higher doctorate#Higher Doctorates in the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Commonwealth|Higher Doctorates]]. In some older universities it typically has precedence after Divinity, Laws or Civil Law, Medicine, and Letters, and above Music. The degree is conferred on a member of the university who has a proven record of internationally recognised scholarship. A candidate for the degree will usually be required to submit a selection of their publications that follow a consistent theme to the board of the appropriate faculty, which will decide if the candidate merits this accolade.<ref name=USQ>{{cite web |title=Higher Doctorates Procedure - University of Southern Queensland |url=https://policy.usq.edu.au/documents/13336PL |website=policy.usq.edu.au |publisher=University of Southern Queensland |access-date=1 March 2024|date=18 January 2022}}</ref> Quite often they will need to be a doctoral graduate of at least ten years standing and have a substantial research association with the awarding university.<ref name=USQ/>

The first University to admit an individual to this degree was the [[University of London]] in 1860.<ref>Pages xiii and xiv of ''The University of London and the World of Learning, 1836–1986'' by [[Francis Michael Longstreth Thompson]]. Published by Continuum International Publishing Group, 1990
{{ISBN|978-1-85285-032-6}}</ref> In 1893 [[Maria Gordon]] (née Ogilvie), was the first woman to receive this degree.<ref>{{cite book|last= Haines|first= Catharine M. C.|author2= Helen M. Stevens|title= International Women in Science|publisher= ABC-CLIO|year=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/internationalwom00hain/page/115 115]|url=https://archive.org/details/internationalwom00hain|url-access= registration|isbn=1-57607-090-5}}</ref>

In former times the doctorate in science was regarded as a greater distinction than a professorial chair and hence a professor who was also a DSc would be known as Doctor. The Doctor of Science may also be awarded as an honorary degree, that is, given to individuals who have made extensive contributions to a particular field and not for specific academic accomplishments. It is usual to signify this by adding DSc h.c. (for ''[[honoris causa]]'').

=== Other European Union countries ===
In the Czech Republic and Slovakia "Doctor of Sciences" (DrSc behind the name), established in 1953, is equivalent to the degree of Doctor of Science in the sense in which the DSc is used in the Commonwealth. It is the highest academic qualification, different from both PhD and PhDr. titles. In the Czech Republic, DrSc has not been awarded since 2001; instead, since 2006, a "Doctor of Sciences" degree (DSc behind the name) has been awarded, not by universities but by the [[Czech Academy of Sciences]] mostly for research in the field of natural or formal science. In Slovakia, "Doctor of Sciences" (DrSc) is awarded by the [[Slovak Academy of Sciences]].

In Hungary, "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc) is a higher doctorate degree and it is awarded by the [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]].

In Finland, most doctoral degrees awarded in the fields of natural sciences, technology and economics are termed DSc degrees in English, with a suffix indicating the field of study. However, there is no translation of the term ''Doctor of Science'' to Finnish. For example, the proper translation for the doctorate in technology (''tekniikan tohtori'') would be DSc (Tech), whereas a doctorate in economics and business administration (''kauppatieteiden tohtori'') would be translated as DSc (Econ). When conversing or writing in English, the prefix ''Dr'' may be used to address a holder of a doctoral degree awarded in Finland. The degrees are equivalent to ''filosofian tohtori'' (FT, English: PhD), but FT is usually awarded only in general sciences, not in specializations like engineering, economics or medicine.

In France, the Doctor of Sciences degree (''doctorat ès sciences'' also called ''doctorat d'État'') was a [[higher doctorate]] in the fields of experimental and natural sciences, superseded in 1984 by the [[habilitation]].

In Denmark, Dr Scient. is a higher doctorate.

In Bulgaria, PhD is the highest education level and first science degree. Doctor of Science is the second and the highest science degree.

=== Other European countries ===
In the former [[Yugoslavia]], (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, North Macedonia),<ref>[[Yugoslavia]]</ref> title ''doktor nauka'' or ''doktor znanosti'' (literally "doctor of science") is used in a much broader sense than DSc, simply referring to a field of academic study – from art history (''doktor znanosti/nauka povijesti umjetnosti''), philosophy (''doktor znanosti/nauka filozofije''), and literary studies (''doktor znanosti/nauka književnosti'') to hard sciences such as molecular biology (''doktor znanosti/nauka molekularne biologije''). It is therefore formally recognized as a PhD degree.

Starting in 2016,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/ua/cardnpd?docid=248945529|title=Урядовий портал - найновіші надходження документів КМУ|date=17 September 2016|access-date=28 April 2018|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917233058/http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/ua/cardnpd?docid=248945529|archive-date=17 September 2016}}</ref> in [[Ukraine]] Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, {{lang-uk|links=no|Доктор філософії}}) is the highest education level and first science degree. "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc {{lang-uk|links=no|Доктор наук}}) is the second and the highest science degree, awarded in recognition of a substantial contribution to scientific knowledge, origination of new directions and visions in science. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine.

In [[Belarus]] "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc, {{lang-be|links=no|Доктар навук}}) is the highest level of education that follows a PhD. Is awarded by [[Higher Attestation Commission|The Higher Attestation Commission]] under the aegis of the [[President of Belarus|President of the Republic of Belarus]].