Australia Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Australia|Environment of Australia}} {{See also|Environmental issues in Australia}} ===General characteristics=== [[File:Reliefmap of Australia.png|thumb|upright=1.3|right|alt=Map showing the topography of Australia, showing some elevation in the west and very high elevation in mountains in the south-east|Topographic map of Australia. Dark green represents the lowest elevation and dark brown the highest.]] Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans,{{Refn|Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the [[Southern Ocean]], rather than the Indian Ocean as defined by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between [[Antarctica]] and [[60th parallel south|60° south]] latitude.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://geography.about.com/od/learnabouttheearth/a/fifthocean.htm|last=Rosenberg|first=Matt |title=The New Fifth Ocean – The World's Newest Ocean – The Southern Ocean|publisher=About.com: Geography|date=20 August 2009 |access-date=5 April 2010 |archive-date=26 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126025233/http://geography.about.com/od/learnabouttheearth/a/fifthocean.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>|name="Southern Ocean"|group="N"}} Australia is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas, with the [[Coral Sea]] lying off the Queensland coast, and the [[Tasman Sea]] lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent<ref name="NatlGeo">{{Cite web |url=http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/places/continents/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714145306/http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/places/continents/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 July 2008 |title=Continents: What is a Continent?|publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=22 August 2009}} "Most people recognize seven continents — [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[North America]], [[South America]], [[Antarctica]], [[Europe]], and Australia, from largest to smallest — although sometimes Europe and Asia are considered a single continent, [[Eurasia]]".</ref> and [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|sixth largest country by total area]],<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/43654/Australia |title=Australia |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=22 August 2009 |archive-date=22 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922214422/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/43654/Australia |url-status=live }} "Smallest continent and sixth largest country (in area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans".</ref> Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent"<ref>{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423151730/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/islands.jsp|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/islands.jsp |publisher=Geoscience Australia |title=Islands |archive-date=23 April 2010}} "Being surrounded by ocean, Australia often is referred to as an island continent. As a continental landmass it is significantly larger than the many thousands of fringing islands{{Nbsp}}..."</ref> and is sometimes considered the [[List of islands by area|world's largest island]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html |title=Australia in Brief: The island continent|publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia) |access-date=29 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604082917/http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html |archive-date=4 June 2009 |url-status=dead}} "Mainland Australia, with an area of 7.69 million square kilometres, is the Earth's largest island but smallest continent".</ref> Australia has {{Cvt|34218|km}} of coastline (excluding all offshore islands),<ref name="Coast">{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/drs/indicator/142/index.html |title=State of the Environment 2006|publisher=Department of the Environment and Water Resources |access-date=19 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710224519/http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/drs/indicator/142/index.html |archive-date=10 July 2007}}</ref> and claims an extensive [[Exclusive economic zone|Exclusive Economic Zone]] of {{Convert|8148250|km2|sqmi}}. This exclusive economic zone does not include the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]].<ref>{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620022412/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp |publisher=Geoscience Australia |title=Oceans and Seas – Geoscience Australia |archive-date=20 June 2009}}</ref> Mainland Australia lies between latitudes [[9th parallel south|9°]] and [[44th parallel south|44° South]], and longitudes [[112th meridian east|112°]] and [[154th meridian east|154° East]].<ref name=lat>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/continental-extremities|title=Continental extremities|date=15 May 2014|publisher=Geoscience Australia|access-date=2 April 2021|archive-date=25 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825063142/https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/continental-extremities|url-status=live}}</ref> Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and desert in the centre.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/national-landscapes/index.html |title=Parks and Reserves—Australia's National Landscapes|website=environment.gov.au|date=23 November 2011 |access-date=4 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104114011/http://environment.gov.au/parks/national-landscapes/index.html |archive-date=4 January 2012}}</ref> The desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the [[outback]] makes up by far the largest portion of land.<ref name="portrait">{{Cite book |title=Australia: Portrait of a continent|last1=Loffler|first1=Ernst|first2=Anneliese|last2=Loffler |author3=A. J. Rose|first4=Denis|last4=Warner|year=1983|publisher=Hutchinson Group (Australia)|location=Richmond, Victoria|isbn=978-0-0913-0460-7|pages=37–39}}</ref> Australia is the driest inhabited continent; its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm.<ref name=bomclim/> The [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|population density]] is 3.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, although the large majority of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline. The population density exceeds 19,500 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/3218.0Main%20Features702016-17?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3218.0&issue=2016-17&num=&view=|title=Population Density|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=26 March 2019|access-date=25 April 2020|archive-date=3 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503083301/https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/Previousproducts/3218.0Main%20Features702016-17?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3218.0&issue=2016-17&num=&view=|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021 Australia had 10% of the global permanent meadows and pastureland.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 {{!}} FAO {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=FAODocuments |date=2023 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 |archive-date=15 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215161116/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Fitzroy Island.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|[[Fitzroy Island (Queensland)|Fitzroy Island]], one of the 600 islands within the main archipelago of the Great Barrier Reef]] The [[Great Barrier Reef]], the world's largest coral reef,<ref name=UNEP>{{Cite web|author=UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre|year=1980 |title=Protected Areas and World Heritage – Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|url=http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528210526/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html |archive-date=28 May 2007 |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |access-date=19 May 2007}}</ref> lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over {{Cvt|2000|km}}. [[Mount Augustus (Western Australia)|Mount Augustus]], claimed to be the world's largest monolith,<ref name="Monolith">{{Cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/Western-Australia/Mount-Augustus/2005/02/17/1108500208314.html|title=Mount Augustus|publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=17 February 2005|access-date=30 March 2010|archive-date=6 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206233728/http://www.smh.com.au/news/Western-Australia/Mount-Augustus/2005/02/17/1108500208314.html|url-status=live}}</ref> is located in Western Australia. At {{Cvt|2228|m}}, [[Mount Kosciuszko]] is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are [[Mawson Peak]] (at {{Cvt|2745|m}}), on the remote Australian [[States and territories of Australia|external territory]] of [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard Island]], and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, [[Mount McClintock]] and [[Mount Menzies]], at {{Cvt|3492|m}} and {{Cvt|3355|m}} respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html|publisher=Geoscience Australia|title=Highest Mountains|access-date=2 February 2012|date=15 May 2014|archive-date=21 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321184228/http://ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Eastern Australia is marked by the [[Great Dividing Range]], which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than {{Cvt|1600|m}} in height.<ref name="Johnson2009p202">{{Cite book|last=Johnson|first=David|year=2009 |title=The Geology of Australia|edition=2|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-5217-6741-5|page=202}}</ref> The [[Eastern Australian temperate forests|coastal uplands]] and a [[Brigalow Belt|belt of Brigalow grasslands]] lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland and shrubland.<ref name="Johnson2009p202"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seabrooka |first1=Leonie|last2=McAlpinea|first2=Clive|last3=Fenshamb|first3=Rod|year=2006 |title=Cattle, crops and clearing: Regional drivers of landscape change in the Brigalow Belt, Queensland, Australia, 1840–2004 |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|volume=78|issue=4|pages=375–376|doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.11.007}}</ref> These include the [[Southeast Australia temperate savanna|western plains]] of New South Wales, and the [[Mitchell Grass Downs]] and [[Mulga Lands]] of inland Queensland.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Einasleigh Uplands savanna|id=aa0705|access-date =16 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Mitchell grass downs|id=aa0707 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Eastern Australia mulga shrublands|id=aa0802 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Southeast Australia temperate savanna|id=aa0803 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref> The northernmost point of the mainland is the tropical [[Cape York Peninsula]].<ref name=lat/> [[File:Uluru, helicopter view, cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[Uluru]] in the semi-arid region of Central Australia]] The landscapes of the [[Top End]] and the [[Gulf Country]]—with their tropical climate—include forest, woodland, wetland, grassland, rainforest and desert.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Arnhem Land tropical savanna|id=aa0701 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 June 2009 |title=Rangelands – Overview|work=Australian Natural Resources Atlas|publisher=Australian Government |url=http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/rangelands/overview/qld/ibra-gup.html|access-date =16 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313224717/http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/rangelands/overview/qld/ibra-gup.html |archive-date=13 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna|id=aa0703 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref> At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|The Kimberley]], and below that the [[Pilbara]]. The [[Victoria Plains tropical savanna]] lies south of the [[Kimberley tropical savanna|Kimberley]] and [[Arnhem Land tropical savanna|Arnhem Land]] savannas, forming a transition between the coastal savannas and the interior deserts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Van Driesum|first=Rob|year=2002 |title=Outback Australia|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-8645-0187-2|page=306}}</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion |name=Victoria Plains tropical savanna|id=aa0709|access-date =16 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Western Australian Mulga shrublands|id=aa1310 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref> At the heart of the country are the [[Central Ranges xeric scrub|uplands of central Australia]]. Prominent features of the centre and south include [[Uluru]] (also known as Ayers Rock), the famous sandstone monolith, and the inland [[Simpson Desert|Simpson]], [[Tirari-Sturt stony desert|Tirari and Sturt Stony]], [[Gibson Desert|Gibson]], [[Great Sandy-Tanami desert|Great Sandy, Tanami]], and [[Great Victoria Desert|Great Victoria]] deserts, with the famous [[Nullarbor Plain]] on the southern coast.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Central Ranges xeric scrub|id=aa1302 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Banting|first=Erinn |year=2003 |title=Australia: The land|publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-7787-9343-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/australia00bant_2/page/10 10] |url=https://archive.org/details/australia00bant_2/page/10}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{WWF ecoregion|name=Tirari-Sturt stony desert|id=aa1309 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Great Sandy-Tanami desert|id=aa1304 |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref> The [[Western Australian mulga shrublands]] lie between the interior deserts and Mediterranean-climate [[Southwest Australia]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Western Australian mulga shrublands|id=aa1301 |access-date=1 June 2020}}</ref> ===Geology=== {{Main|Geology of Australia}} [[File:Ausgeolbasic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Basic geological regions of Australia, by age]] Lying on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]], the mainland of Australia is the lowest and most primordial landmass on Earth with a relatively stable geological history.<ref>Pirajno, F., Occhipinti, S.A. and Swager, C.P., 1998. ''Geology and tectonic evolution of the Palaeoproterozoic Bryah, Padbury and Yerrida basins, Western Australia: implications for the history of the south-central Capricorn orogen'' Precambrian Research, 90: 119–40</ref><ref>Pain, C.F., Villans, B.J., Roach, I.C., Worrall, L. & Wilford, J.R. (2012) "Old, flat and red – Australia's distinctive landscape" In: ''Shaping a Nation: A Geology of Australia'' Blewitt, R.S. (Ed.) Geoscience Australia and ANU E Press, Canberra. pp. 227–75 {{ISBN|978-1-9221-0343-7}}</ref> The landmass includes virtually all known rock types and from all geological time periods spanning over 3.8 billion years of the Earth's history. The [[Pilbara Craton]] is one of only two pristine [[Archean|Archaean]] 3.6–2.7 Ga (billion years ago) crusts identified on the Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gray|first1=DR|last2=Foster|first2=DA|year=2004 |title=Tectonic review of the Lachlan Orogen: historical review, data synthesis and modern perspectives|journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences|volume=51|issue=6|pages=773–817|doi=10.1111/j.1400-0952.2004.01092.x|s2cid=128901742}}</ref> Having been part of all major [[supercontinent]]s, the [[Australia (continent)|Australian continent]] began to form after the breakup of [[Gondwana]] in the [[Permian]], with the separation of the continental landmass from the African continent and Indian subcontinent. It separated from Antarctica over a prolonged period beginning in the [[Permian]] and continuing through to the [[Cretaceous]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hawkesworth|first1=CJ|display-authors=et al.|year=2010 |title=The generation and evolution of the continental crust|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|volume=167|issue=2|pages=229–248 |doi=10.1144/0016-76492009-072|bibcode=2010JGSoc.167..229H|s2cid=131052922}}</ref> When the [[last glacial period]] ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed [[Bass Strait]], separating [[Tasmania]] from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the [[Aru Islands]], and the mainland of Australia.<ref>Hillis RR & Muller RD. (eds) 2003 ''Evolution and dynamics of the Australian Plate'' Geological Society of Australia Special Publication 22: 432 p.</ref> The Australian continent is moving toward [[Eurasia]] at the rate of 6 to 7 centimetres a year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cawood|first1=PA|year=2005 |title=Terra Australis Orogen: ''Rodinia breakup and development of the Pacific and Iapetus margins of Gondwana during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic''|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=69|issue=3–4|pages=249–279|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.09.001|bibcode=2005ESRv...69..249C}}</ref> The Australian mainland's [[continental crust]], excluding the thinned margins, has an average thickness of 38{{Nbsp}}km, with a range in thickness from 24 km to 59 km.<ref>McKenzie et al. (ed) 2004 Australian Soils and Landscapes: an illustrated compendium [[CSIRO]] Publishing: 395 p.</ref> Australia's geology can be divided into several main sections, showcasing that the continent grew from west to east: the Archaean [[craton]]ic shields found mostly in the west, [[Proterozoic]] [[orogeny|fold belts]] in the centre and [[Phanerozoic]] [[sedimentary basins]], metamorphic and [[igneous rocks]] in the east.<ref>Bishop P & Pillans B. (eds) 2010, Australian Landscapes Geological Society of London Special Publication 346</ref> The Australian mainland and Tasmania are situated in the middle of the [[tectonic plate]] and have no active volcanoes,<ref name="ag">{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm |title=Land of earthquakes and volcanoes?|first=Kevin|last=Mccue |access-date=25 April 2010|date=26 February 2010|publisher=Australian Geographic |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306150520/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm |archive-date=6 March 2010}}</ref> but due to passing over the [[East Australia hotspot]], recent volcanism has occurred during the [[Holocene]], in the [[Newer Volcanics Province]] of western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia. Volcanism also occurs in the island of New Guinea (considered geologically as part of the Australian continent), and in the Australian external territory of [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]].<ref>Van Ufford AQ & Cloos M. 2005 ''Cenozoic tectonics of New Guinea'' AAPG Bulletin 89: 119–140</ref> [[List of earthquakes in Australia|Seismic activity]] in the Australian mainland and Tasmania is also low, with the greatest number of fatalities having occurred in the [[1989 Newcastle earthquake]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/urban/factsheets/earthquakes_newcastle.jsp |title=Earthquake History, Regional Seismicity And The 1989 Newcastle Earthquake |publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=22 June 2004 |access-date=27 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040826220212/http://www.ga.gov.au/urban/factsheets/earthquakes_newcastle.jsp |archive-date=26 August 2004}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Australia}} [[File:Australia Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Australia<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|issue=1|page=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>]] The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] and the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]], which is correlated with periodic [[Drought in Australia|drought]], and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/climate-watch/no-more-drought-its-a-permanent-dry/2007/09/06/1188783415754.html|title=No more drought: it's a 'permanent dry'|last=Kleinman|first=Rachel|date=6 September 2007|access-date=30 March 2010|publisher=The Age|location=Melbourne|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010150803/http://www.theage.com.au/news/climate-watch/no-more-drought-its-a-permanent-dry/2007/09/06/1188783415754.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.independent.co.uk/world/australasia/article2465960.ece |title=Australia's epic drought: The situation is grim|last=Marks|first=Kathy|newspaper=The Independent|date=20 April 2007 |access-date=30 March 2010|location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422065131/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/australasia/article2465960.ece |archive-date=22 April 2007}}</ref> These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall ([[monsoon]]).<ref name=bomclim>{{Cite web |title=Australia – Climate of Our Continent|publisher=Bureau of Meteorology|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/zones.htm |access-date=17 June 2010 |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20090317054300/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/96122/20090317-1643/www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/zones.html |archive-date=17 March 2009}}{{Cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The south-west corner of the country has a [[Mediterranean climate]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate of Western Australia|publisher=Bureau of Meteorology|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclimwa.htm |access-date=6 December 2009 |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20090317054300/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/96122/20090317-1643/www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclimwa.html |archive-date=17 March 2009}}{{Cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The south-east ranges from [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] (Tasmania and coastal Victoria) to [[humid subtropical]] (upper half of New South Wales), with the highlands featuring [[alpine climate|alpine]] and [[subpolar oceanic climate]]s. The interior is [[arid]] to [[semi-arid]].<ref name=bomclim/> Driven by climate change, average temperatures have risen [[Climate change in Australia|more than 1°C since 1960]]. Associated changes in rainfall patterns and climate extremes exacerbate existing issues such as drought and [[Bushfires in Australia|bushfires]]. 2019 was Australia's warmest recorded year,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/documents/State-of-the-Climate-2020.pdf|title=State of the Climate 2020|publisher=Bureau of Meteorology|date=November 2020|access-date=2 December 2020|archive-date=24 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124014610/http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/documents/State-of-the-Climate-2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season|2019–2020 bushfire season]] was the country's worst [[List of Australian bushfire seasons|on record]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Australia fires: Life during and after the worst bushfires in history|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/52410744|publisher=BBC News|date=28 April 2020|access-date=18 July 2020|archive-date=15 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715111438/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/52410744|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Greenhouse gas emissions by Australia|Australia's greenhouse gas emissions]] per capita are among the highest in the world.<ref>{{Cite report|date=9 March 2020|title=Environment at a Glance Indicators: Climate change|url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/environment-at-a-glance/Climate-Change-Archive-February-2020.pdf|publisher=OECD|page=6|access-date=3 December 2020|archive-date=21 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221214907/https://www.oecd.org/environment/environment-at-a-glance/Climate-Change-Archive-February-2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Water restrictions in Australia|Water restrictions]] are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Heggie|first1=Jon |title=Making Every Drop Count: How Australia is Securing its Water Future|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/partner-content-how-australia-is-securing-its-water-future/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718182729/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/partner-content-how-australia-is-securing-its-water-future/|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 July 2020|publisher=National Geographic|date=August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nwc.gov.au/urban/more/national-review-of-water-restrictions-in-australia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227083656/http://www.nwc.gov.au/urban/more/national-review-of-water-restrictions-in-australia |archive-date=27 February 2012 |title=National review of water restrictions in Australia|publisher=Australian Government National Water Commission|date=15 January 2010 |access-date=27 September 2012}}</ref> Throughout much of the continent, [[Floods in Australia|major flooding]] regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in the early 2010s after the [[2000s Australian drought]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/yes-australia-is-a-land-of-flooding-rains-but-climate-change-could-be-making-it-worse-157586|last=Gergis|first=Joelle|title=Yes, Australia is a land of flooding rains. But climate change could be making it worse|date=23 March 2021|website=The Conversation|access-date=2 April 2021|archive-date=4 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210404091437/https://theconversation.com/yes-australia-is-a-land-of-flooding-rains-but-climate-change-could-be-making-it-worse-157586|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Biodiversity=== {{See also|Fauna of Australia|Flora of Australia|Fungi of Australia}} [[File:Koala climbing tree.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|alt=A koala holding onto a eucalyptus tree with its head turned so both eyes are visible|The [[koala]] and the ''[[eucalyptus]]'' form an iconic Australian pair.]] Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, the continent includes a diverse range of habitats from [[alpine climate|alpine]] heaths to [[tropical rainforest]]s. Fungi typify that diversity—an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5% have been described—occur in Australia.<ref>Pascoe, I. G.; (1991) History of systematic mycology in Australia ''History of Systematic Botany in Australasia'' Ed. by: P. Short Australian Systematic Botany Society Inc. pp. 259–264</ref> Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's [[biota (ecology)|biota]] is unique. About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of [[List of birds of Australia|birds]], and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are [[endemism|endemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/about-biodiversity.html |title=About Biodiversity |access-date=18 September 2007|publisher=Department of the Environment and Heritage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205015628/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/about-biodiversity.html |archive-date=5 February 2007}}</ref> Australia has at least 755 species of reptile, more than any other country in the world.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lambertini|first=Marco|title=A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics|year=2000|isbn=978-0-2264-6828-0|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html|format=excerpt|access-date=30 March 2010|archive-date=5 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010300/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Besides Antarctica, Australia is the only continent that developed without feline species. Feral cats may have been introduced in the 17th century by Dutch shipwrecks, and later in the 18th century by European settlers. They are now considered a major factor in the decline and extinction of many vulnerable and endangered native species.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-13/greg-hunt-feral-cat-native-animals-fact-check/5858282|title=Fact check: Are feral cats killing over 20 billion native animals a year?|date=20 November 2014|work=ABC News|access-date=22 January 2017|archive-date=8 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108001903/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-13/greg-hunt-feral-cat-native-animals-fact-check/5858282|url-status=live}}</ref> Seafaring immigrants from Asia are believed to have brought the [[dingo]] to Australia sometime after the end of the last ice age{{Mdash}}perhaps 4000 years ago{{Mdash}}and Aboriginal people helped disperse them across the continent as pets, contributing to the demise of [[thylacines]] on the mainland.<ref name="ReferenceB">The Story of Australia's People, Volume 1: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Vic., 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-6700-7871-4}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=February 2024}} Australia is also one of 17 megadiverse countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Megan C. |last2=Watson |first2=James E. M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Richard A. |last4=Venter |first4=Oscar |last5=Bennett |first5=Simon C. |last6=Marsack |first6=Peter R. |last7=Possingham |first7=Hugh P. |title=The Spatial Distribution of Threats to Species in Australia |journal=BioScience |date=April 2011 |volume=61 |issue=4 |page=282 |doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.4.8 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Forests of Australia|Australian forests]] are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly [[eucalyptus]] trees in the less arid regions; [[Acacia|wattles]] replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts.<ref name=dfat>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/flora_and_fauna.html |title=About Australia: Flora and fauna |access-date=15 May 2010|date=May 2008|publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211203954/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/flora_and_fauna.html |archive-date=11 February 2014}}</ref> Among well-known [[fauna of Australia|Australian animals]] are the [[monotreme]]s (the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]); a host of [[marsupial]]s, including the [[kangaroo]], koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra.<ref name=dfat/> Australia is home to [[Animal attacks in Australia|many dangerous animals]] including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2015 |title=Snake bite – The Australian Venom Compendium Concept |url=http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm |access-date=15 January 2022 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115112947/http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm |archive-date=15 January 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[dingo]] was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="savolainen2004">{{Cite journal|last1=Savolainen|first1=P.|last2=Leitner|first2=T.|last3=Wilton|first3=A.N.|last4=Matisoo-Smith|first4=E. |last5=Lundeberg|first5=J.|title=A detailed picture of the origin of the Australian dingo, obtained from the study of mitochondrial DNA|doi=10.1073/pnas.0401814101|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=101|issue=33|pages=12387–12390|year=2004|pmid=15299143|pmc=514485|bibcode=2004PNAS..10112387S|doi-access=free}}</ref> Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://uninews.unimelb.edu.au/view.php?articleID=170 |title=Humans to blame for extinction of Australia's megafauna|publisher=University of Melbourne|date=8 June 2001 |access-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402065113/http://uninews.unimelb.edu.au/view.php?articleID=170 |archive-date=2 April 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> including the [[Australian megafauna]]; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.<ref name="NW">{{Cite web |url=http://www.naturalworlds.org/thylacine/index.htm |title=The Thylacine Museum – A Natural History of the Tasmanian Tiger |publisher=The Thylacine Museum |access-date=14 October 2013 |archive-date=15 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315214219/http://www.naturalworlds.org/thylacine/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ts-day/index.html |title=National Threatened Species Day |publisher=Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government|year=2006 |access-date=21 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209084616/http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ts-day/index.html |archive-date=9 December 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and [[Invasive species in Australia|introduced]] animal, [[chromista]]n, fungal and plant species.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/index.html |title=Invasive species|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|date=17 March 2010 |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629001302/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/index.html |archive-date=29 June 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> All these factors have led to Australia's having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2012/10/australias-most-endangered-species|title=Australia's most endangered species|publisher=Australian Geographic|access-date=16 June 2014|date=2 October 2012|archive-date=7 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707222631/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2012/10/australias-most-endangered-species|url-status=live}}</ref> The federal ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/index.html |title=About the EPBC Act|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531084042/http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/index.html |archive-date=31 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Numerous [[Protected areas of Australia|protected areas]] have been created under the [[Biodiversity action plan|National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity]] to protect and preserve unique ecosystems;<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/publications/strategy/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312021249/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/publications/strategy/index.html |archive-date=12 March 2011 |title=National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|date=21 January 2010 |access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/publications/strategy/chap1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313222100/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/publications/strategy/chap1.html |archive-date=13 March 2011 |title=Conservation of biological diversity across Australia |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|date=19 January 2009 |access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref> 65 [[wetland]]s are [[List of Ramsar sites in Australia|listed]] under the [[Ramsar Convention]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ramsar.org/document/the-list-of-wetlands-of-international-importance-the-ramsar-list|title=The List of Wetlands of International Importance|publisher=Ramsar Convention|pages=6–7|date=22 May 2010|access-date=14 June 2010|archive-date=15 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015201559/http://www.ramsar.org/document/the-list-of-wetlands-of-international-importance-the-ramsar-list|url-status=live}}</ref> and 16 natural [[World Heritage Site]]s have been established.<ref name="WHC">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/au|title=Australia|work=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=5 September 2009|archive-date=2 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002202106/http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/au|url-status=live}}</ref> Australia was ranked 21st out of 178 countries in the world on the 2018 [[Environmental Performance Index]].<ref>{{Citation |title=2018 EPI Results|url=https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/epi-topline|work=Environmental Performance Index|publisher=Yale Center for International Earth Science Information Network |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=23 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723205354/https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/epi-topline |url-status=dead}}</ref> There are more than 1,800 animals and plants on Australia's threatened species list, including more than 500 animals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-06-24/australias-long-list-of-threatened-species/11234090|title='Haunting': What it's like watching the last of a species die|last=March|first=Stephanie|date=24 June 2019|work=ABC News|access-date=16 July 2019|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713234527/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-06-24/australias-long-list-of-threatened-species/11234090|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Paleontologists]] discovered a [[fossil]] site of a [[prehistoric]] [[rainforest]] in [[McGraths Flat]], in South Australia, that presents evidence that this now arid [[desert]] and dry [[shrubland]]/[[grassland]] was once home to an abundance of life.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mind-Blowing New Fossil Site Found in The 'Dead' Heart of Australia |author=Michelle Starr |date=7 January 2022 |website=Science Alert |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/incredible-new-fossil-site-found-in-the-dead-heart-of-australia |access-date=7 January 2022 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107221514/https://www.sciencealert.com/incredible-new-fossil-site-found-in-the-dead-heart-of-australia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=See the spectacular fossils from a newly discovered prehistoric rainforest |date=7 January 2022 |author=Michael Greshko |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/see-the-spectacular-fossils-from-a-newly-discovered-prehistoric-rainforest|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107192025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/see-the-spectacular-fossils-from-a-newly-discovered-prehistoric-rainforest|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 January 2022}}</ref> Summary: Please 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