Ancient Rome

==Empire – the Principate==
{{Main|Roman Empire}}
[[File:Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Augustus of Prima Porta]], 1st century AD, depicting [[Augustus]], the first [[Roman emperor]]]]

In 27&nbsp;BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/augustus.shtml Augustus (63 BC – AD 14)] from [[BBC Online|bbc.co.uk]]. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref><ref name="autogenerated14">Langley, Andrew and Souza, de Philip: "The Roman Times" p. 14, Candle Wick Press, 1996</ref> His [[Constitutional reforms of Augustus|reform of the government]] brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the [[Pax Romana]].

===Julio-Claudian dynasty===
The [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] was established by [[Augustus]]. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, [[Tiberius]], [[Caligula]], [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]]. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region.<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jucl/hd_jucl.htm The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC – 68 AD)]. by the Department of Greek and [[Roman art|Roman Art]], The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]. October 2000. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</ref> While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome<ref>{{Cite book |last=James Orr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn4PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2598 |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia |publisher=Howard-Severance Company |year=1915 |page=2598}}</ref> and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Charles Phineas Sherman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F1iuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA50 |title=Roman law in the modern world |publisher=The Boston book company |year=1917 |page=50}}</ref>

Augustus ({{Reign|27 BC|AD 14}}) gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, ''[[princeps]]'', and diminished the political influence of the [[Roman Senate|senatorial class]] by boosting the [[equestrian class]]. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the [[Praetorian Guard]] and his reforms in the military, creating a [[standing army]] with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army.<ref>Werner Eck, ''The Age of Augustus''</ref> Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as ''princeps'' was very peaceful, which led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Augustus|volume=2|page=912|first=Henry Francis|last=Pelham|author-link=Henry Francis Pelham}}</ref> His generals were responsible for the field command; gaining such commanders as [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] and [[Germanicus]] much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered [[Cantabrian Wars|Cantabria]], [[Aquitania]], [[Raetia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Pannonia]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XXI, 1.</ref>
Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the [[Golden Age of Latin Literature]]. Poets like [[Virgil]], [[Horace]], [[Ovid]] and [[Lucius Varius Rufus|Rufus]] developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with [[Maecenas]], he sponsored patriotic poems, as Virgil's epic ''[[Aeneid]]'' and historiographical works, like those of [[Livy]]. Augustus continued the changes to the calendar promoted by [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], and the month of August is named after him.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XXI.</ref> Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as ''[[Pax Romana|Pax Augusta]]'' or ''Pax Romana''. Augustus died in 14&nbsp;AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era.

[[File:Impero romano sotto Ottaviano Augusto 30aC - 6dC.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in 31&nbsp;BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent [[client state]]s; areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in [[Germania]].]]
The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68&nbsp;AD.{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/140 140]}} Influenced by his wife, [[Livia Drusilla]], Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, [[Tiberius]], as his heir.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', LXIII.</ref> The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honours once granted to Augustus: the title of ''princeps'' and ''[[Pater patriae]]'', and the [[Civic Crown]]. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to [[Capri]] in 26&nbsp;AD,<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/57*.html#ref4] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LVII, 12.</ref> and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the [[praetorian prefect]] [[Sejanus]] (until 31&nbsp;AD) and [[Naevius Sutorius Macro|Macro]] (from 31 to 37&nbsp;AD).

Tiberius died (or was killed)<ref name="tarver1902">{{Cite book |last=John Charles Tarver |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MHPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA342 |title=Tiberius, the tyrant |publisher=A. Constable |year=1902 |pages=342–428 |access-date=31 May 2012}}</ref> in 37&nbsp;AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew [[Claudius]], his grandson [[Tiberius Gemellus]] and his grand-nephew [[Caligula]]. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Johann Jakob Herzog |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOkXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA99 |title=The Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia: Being a Condensed Translation of Herzog's Real Encyclopedia |last2=John Henry Augustus Bomberger |publisher=Lindsay & Blakiston |year=1858 |page=99}}; {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8fmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445 |title=The Chautauquan |publisher=M. Bailey |year=1881 |page=445}}</ref> The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Compendium |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4ADAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA109 |title=A compendium of universal history. Ancient and modern, by the author of 'Two thousand questions on the Old and New Testaments'. |year=1858 |page=109}}</ref> and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle [[Claudius]] as the new emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sir William Smith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ok4pAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA776 |title=Abaeus-Dysponteus |publisher=J. Murray |year=1890 |page=776}}</ref> Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered [[Lycia]] and [[Roman Thrace|Thrace]]; his most important deed was the beginning of the [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britannia]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#ref74] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Claudius'', XVII.</ref> Claudius was poisoned by his wife, [[Agrippina the Younger]] in 54&nbsp;AD.<ref>Claudius By Barbara Levick. p. 77.</ref> His heir was [[Nero]], son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son [[Britannicus]] had not reached manhood upon his father's death.

Nero sent his general, [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus|Suetonius Paulinus]], to invade modern-day [[Wales]], where he encountered stiff resistance. The [[Celtic Britons|Celts]] there were independent, tough and resistant to tax collectors and fought Paulinus, as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the [[Menai Strait]] to the sacred island of Mona ([[Anglesey]]), the last stronghold of the [[druid]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Brief History: Brief History of Great Britain |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=34}}</ref> His soldiers [[Roman conquest of Anglesey|attacked the island]] and massacred the druids: men, women and children,<ref>{{Cite book |title=England Invaded |date=2014 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |page=27}}</ref> destroyed the shrine and the [[sacred grove]]s and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day [[East Anglia]] staged a revolt led by queen [[Boudica|Boadicea]] of the [[Iceni]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire |date=2010 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=30}}</ref> The rebels sacked and burned [[Camulodunum]], [[Londinium]] and [[Verulamium]] (modern-day [[Colchester]], London and [[St Albans]] respectively) before they were [[Defeat of Boudica|crushed by Paulinus]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 September 2016 |title=Gaius Suetonius Paulinus |url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/ |access-date=21 February 2023 |archive-date=13 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102217/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2016/09/27/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Boadicea, like [[Cleopatra]] before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Making Europe: The Story of the West, Volume I to 1790 |date=2013 |page=162}}</ref> Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of [[Christians]] and for the [[Great Fire of Rome]], rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#note119] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Nero'', XVI.; [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/15B*.html#38] Tacitus, ''Annales'', XXXVIII.</ref> A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under [[Gaius Calpurnius Piso (conspirator)|Calpurnius Piso]] failed, but in 68 AD the armies under [[Gaius Julius Vindex|Julius Vindex]] in Gaul and [[Galba|Servius Sulpicius Galba]] in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.<ref>[http://www.roman-emperors.org/nero.htm Nero (54–68 AD)] by Herbert W. Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</ref>

===Flavian dynasty===
[[File:Vespasianus01 pushkin edit.png|thumb|upright|Bust of [[Vespasian]], founder of the [[Flavian dynasty]]]]
The [[Flavian dynasty|Flavians]] were the second dynasty to rule Rome.<ref name="suetonius">Suetonius</ref> By 68&nbsp;AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the [[Roman Republic]], and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the [[Year of the Four Emperors]], [[Vespasian|Titus Flavius Vespasianus]] (anglicised as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure.<ref>{{Harvnb|O'Connell|1989|page=[https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon/page/81 81]}}; {{Cite web |last=Kreis |first=Stephen |title=Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana |url=http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture12b.html |access-date=21 March 2007 |website=The History Guide}}</ref> Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion.{{Sfn| Scarre|1995}} Rome's dominion now spanned {{Convert|5.0|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=off|sigfig=2}}.<ref name=":0"/>

The most significant [[Campaign history of the Roman military|military campaign]] undertaken during the Flavian period was the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege and destruction]] of [[Jerusalem]] in 70 AD by [[Titus]]. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] following the Jewish uprising of 66 AD. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' in honour of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. [[Josephus]] claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish.<ref>Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3</ref> 97,000 were captured and [[Slavery in ancient Rome|enslaved]], including [[Simon bar Giora]] and [[John of Giscala]]. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean.

Vespasian was a general under [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]] and fought as a commander in the [[First Jewish-Roman War]]. Following the turmoil of the [[Year of the Four Emperors]], in 69&nbsp;AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: [[Galba]], [[Otho]], [[Vitellius]], and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor.<ref name="Suetonius Vespasian">{{Cite book |last=[[Suetonius]] |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html |title=The Twelve Caesars: Vespasian}}</ref> He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of [[Apollo]] and the temple of ''[[Claudius|Divus Claudius]]'' ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the [[Great Fire of Rome]] were rebuilt, and he revitalised the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitol]]. Vespasian started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, commonly known as the [[Colosseum]].<ref name="Suetonius Vespasian"/> The historians [[Josephus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'' to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in [[Cappadocia]], extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern [[Scotland]]) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79&nbsp;AD.

Titus became emperor in 79. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, using war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and hosted victory games that lasted for a hundred days. These games included [[Gladiator|gladiatorial combats]], horse races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#ref7] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVI.; [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#ref9] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Titus'', VII, 3.</ref> Titus died of fever in 81&nbsp;AD, and was succeeded by his brother [[Domitian]]. As emperor, Domitian showed the characteristics of a [[tyrant]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#ref53] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Domitian'', X.</ref> He ruled for fifteen years, during which time he acquired a reputation for self-promotion as a living god. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]].<ref>[http://www.roman-empire.net/emperors/domitian-index.html Titus Flavius Domitianus]. Retrieved 29 October 2011.</ref> He was murdered following a plot within his own household.

===Nerva–Antonine dynasty===
[[File:RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png|thumb|The [[Roman Empire]] reached its greatest extent under [[Trajan]] in AD&nbsp;117]]
Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva as Emperor. Nerva had noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the traditional liberties of Rome's upper classes, which Domitian had over-ridden.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html | title=Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 68 }}</ref><ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 1.</ref> The [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty]] from 96 AD to 192 AD included the "five good emperors" [[Nerva]], Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; and ended with [[Commodus]].

Nerva abdicated and died in 98&nbsp;AD, and was succeeded by the general [[Trajan]]. Trajan is credited with the restoration of traditional privileges and rights of commoner and senatorial classes, which later Roman historians claim to have been eroded during Domitian's autocracy.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 6.</ref> [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Trajan fought three Dacian wars]], winning territories roughly equivalent to modern-day [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]. He undertook an ambitious public building program in Rome, including [[Trajan's Forum]], [[Trajan's Market]] and [[Trajan's Column]], with the architect [[Apollodorus of Damascus]]. He remodelled the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] and extended the [[Circus Maximus]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 13.</ref> When [[Parthia]] appointed a king for [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] without consulting Rome, [[Trajan's Parthian campaign|Trajan declared war on Parthia]] and deposed the king of Armenia. In 115 he took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] and [[Suruç|Batnae]], organised a province of [[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Mesopotamia]] (116), and issued coins that claimed Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 17–30.</ref> In that same year, he captured [[Seleucia]] and the Parthian capital [[Ctesiphon]] (near modern [[Baghdad]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Emperors of Rome: The Story of Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the Last Emperor |date=2014 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=64}}</ref> After defeating a Parthian revolt and a [[Kitos War|Jewish revolt]], he withdrew due to health issues, and in 117, he died of [[edema]].

[[File:Hadrians Wall map.png|thumb|Map showing the location of [[Hadrian's Wall]] and the [[Antonine Wall]] in Scotland and Northern England]]
Many Romans emigrated to Hispania (modern-day Spain and [[Portugal]]) and stayed for generations, in some cases intermarrying with [[Iberians]]; one of these families produced the emperor [[Hadrian]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=406}}</ref> Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day [[Iraq]]), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in [[Mauretania]] and the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "[[Syria Palaestina|Provincia Syria Palaestina]]", after one of Judea's most hated enemies.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 |date=2005 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0802824165 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15 15]}}</ref> He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated [[Hadrian's Wall]] which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He forbade [[torture]] and humanised the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theatres; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to review military and infrastructural conditions.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html] Historia Augusta, ''Life of Hadrian''.</ref> Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor [[Antoninus Pius]] built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of [[rhetoric]] and philosophy. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the [[Antonine Wall]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Antoninus_Pius*.html#ref34] ''Historia Augusta'', ''Life of Antoninus Pius'', V, 4.</ref> He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanising the laws. He died in 161&nbsp;AD.

[[File:20190406-DSC5193 Panteon.jpg|thumb|The [[Pantheon, Rome]], built during the reign of [[Hadrian]], which still contains the largest unreinforced concrete [[dome]] in the world]]

[[Marcus Aurelius]], known as the Philosopher, was the last of the [[Five Good Emperors]]. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the ''[[Meditations]]''. He defeated barbarian tribes in the [[Marcomannic Wars]] as well as the [[Parthian Empire]].<ref name="Dio LXXII">{{Citation |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html#36 |author=Cassius Dio |title=Roman History |chapter=Epitome of Book LXXII |author-link=Cassius Dio}}</ref> His co-emperor, [[Lucius Verus]], died in 169&nbsp;AD, probably from the [[Antonine Plague]], a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180&nbsp;AD.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm Past pandemics that ravaged Europe] by Verity Murphy. [[BBC News]]. 7 November 2005.</ref>

From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. Gibbon declared the rule of these "Five Good Emperors" the golden era of the Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter I |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/731}}</ref> During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent.<ref>[http://www.unrv.com/early-empire/five-good-emperors.php Five Good Emperors] from UNRV History. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref>

[[Commodus]], son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors, due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive. [[Cassius Dio]] identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman [[decadence]]: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."<ref name="Dio LXXII"/>

===Severan dynasty===

Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving [[Quintus Aemilius Laetus]] and his wife Marcia in late 192&nbsp;AD. The following year is known as the [[Year of the Five Emperors]], during which [[Helvius Pertinax]], [[Didius Julianus]], [[Pescennius Niger]], [[Clodius Albinus]] and [[Septimius Severus]] held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right-hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man.{{Sfn|Cary|1967|page=704}} The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—[[Roman Britain|Britannia]], [[Pannonia Superior]], and [[Roman Syria|Syria]]—resented being excluded from the "[[Donativum|donative]]" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on [[coin]]age and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].

[[File:Septimusseverustondo.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Severan Tondo]], c.&nbsp;199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased]]
Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having [[Didius Julianus]] killed. Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVI, 7.</ref> When [[Parthia]] invaded Roman territory, Severus successfully waged war against that country. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading [[Hatra]], a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVI, 9–12.</ref> Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he [[Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210|waged war]] against the [[Caledonians]]. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211&nbsp;AD, at the age of 65.

[[File:Caracalla Musei Capitolini MC2310.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Bust of [[Caracalla]] from the [[Capitoline Museums]], Rome]]
Upon the death of Severus, his sons [[Caracalla]] and [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]] were made emperors. Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. Knowing that the citizens of [[Alexandria]] disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/78*.html] Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVIII, 22–23.; [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Caracalla*.html#ref35] ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Caracalla'', VI.</ref> In 212, he issued the [[Constitutio Antoniniana|Edict of Caracalla]], giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the ''dediticii'', people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.<ref name="dediticii">Giessen Papyrus, 40, 7–9 "I grant to all the inhabitants of the Empire the Roman citizenship and no one remains outside a civitas, with the exception of the dediticii"</ref>

[[Mary Beard (classicist)|Mary Beard]] points to the edict as a fundamental turning point, after which ''Rome'' was "effectively a new state masquerading under an old name".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ |title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome |date=2015-10-20 |publisher=Profile |isbn=978-1-84765-441-0 |pages=529–530 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Macrinus]] conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217&nbsp;AD. Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god [[Elagabalus]], represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler,{{Sfn|Haywood|1971|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse/page/376 376]–393}} Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. [[Cassius Dio]], [[Herodian]] and the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'' give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin [[Severus Alexander]], as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalised [[Persia]] and also the [[Germanic peoples]], who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235&nbsp;AD.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Severus_Alexander/3*.html#ref239] ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Alexander Severus'', LIX.</ref>

=== Crisis of the Third Century ===
{{Main|Crisis of the Third Century}}
[[File:Map of Ancient Rome 271 AD.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|The Roman Empire suffered internal schisms, forming the [[Palmyrene Empire]] and the [[Gallic Empire]]]]

A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of [[Alexander Severus]]: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external [[invasion]]s, political chaos, [[Plague of Cyprian|pandemics]] and [[Economic collapse|economic depression]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Skip Knox |first=E.L. |title=Crisis of the Third Century (235–285) |url=http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503114611/http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml |archive-date=3 May 2007 |website=History of Western Civilization |publisher=Boise State University}}</ref>{{Sfn|Haywood|1971|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse/page/376 376]–393}} The old Roman values had fallen, and [[Mithraism]] and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars.

There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. [[Maximinus Thrax]] was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like [[Gordian I]], [[Gordian II]], [[Balbinus]] and [[Hostilian]]. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered: massive military expenditures from the [[Severan dynasty|Severi]] caused a devaluation of Roman coins. [[Hyperinflation]] came at this time as well. The [[Plague of Cyprian]] broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population.<ref name="Gibbon10">{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter X |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/731/731-h/731-h.htm#link102HCH0001 |chapter-format=Online version}}</ref> In 260&nbsp;AD, the provinces of [[Syria Palaestina]], [[Asia Minor]] and [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Egypt]] separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the [[Palmyrene Empire]], ruled by Queen [[Zenobia]] and centered on [[Palmyra]]. In that same year the [[Gallic Empire]] was created by [[Postumus]], retaining Britannia and Gaul.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Tyranni_XXX*.html] ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders'', III et XXX.</ref> These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] by the [[Sassanid]]s of [[Persia]], the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans.<ref name="Gibbon10"/> The crisis began to recede during the reigns of [[Claudius Gothicus]] (268–270), who [[Battle of Naissus|defeated]] the [[Goths|Gothic]] invaders, and [[Aurelian]] (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Aurelian/2*.html] ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Aurelian'', XXXII.; [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html] ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Claudius'', I.</ref> The crisis was overcome during the reign of [[Diocletian]].