University

===Modern universities===
{{Main|History of European universities|List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945)|Research university}}[[File:King's_College_London_Chapel_2,_London_-_Diliff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[King's College London]], established by Royal Charter having been founded by [[King George IV]] and [[Duke of Wellington]] in 1829, is one of the founding colleges of the [[University of London]].]]Modern universities constitute a [[guild]] or quasi-guild system. This facet of the university system did not change due to its peripheral standing in an industrialized economy; as commerce developed between towns in Europe during the Middle Ages, though other guilds stood in the way of developing commerce and therefore were eventually abolished, the scholars guild did not. According to historian Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krause |first=Elliot |title=Death of Guilds:Professions, States, and The Advance of Capitalism, 1930 to The Present} |publisher=Yale University Press, New Haven and London |year=1996}}</ref>

By the 18th century, universities published their own [[academic journal|research journals]] and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] and based on [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]]'s liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of [[academic freedom|freedom]], [[seminar]]s, and [[laboratory|laboratories]] in universities.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university.

Until the 19th century, [[religion]] played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the United States, the [[Johns Hopkins University]] was the first to adopt the (German) [[research university]] model and pioneered the adoption of that model by most American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the entire faculty had studied in Germany."<ref name="Menand">{{cite news|last1=Menand|first1=Louis|last2=Reitter|first2=Paul|last3=Wellmon|first3=Chad|title=General Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWesDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|access-date=25 January 2017|work=The Rise of the Research University: A Sourcebook|isbn=9780226414850|publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=2017|location=Chicago|pages=2–3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215064506/https://books.google.com/books?id=cWesDQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA2|archive-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> In Britain, the move from [[Industrial Revolution]] to [[modernity]] saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on [[science]] and [[engineering]], a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and [[Samuel Curran|Sir Samuel Curran]], with the formation of the [[University of Strathclyde]].<ref>{{Cite ODNB |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/69524 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/69524 |access-date=28 May 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306083652/http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/69524 |archive-date=6 March 2016  }}</ref> The British also established universities worldwide, and [[higher education]] became available to the masses not only in Europe.

In 1963, the [[Robbins Report]] on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."<ref name="historyandpolicy">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-98.html|title=The 'Idea of a University' today|last=Anderson|first=Robert|date=March 2010|work=History & Policy|access-date=9 December 2010|location=United Kingdom|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127065822/http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-98.html|archive-date=27 November 2010}}</ref>

In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power is transferred from faculty to managers, economic justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns".<ref>Maggie Berg & Barbara Seeber. The Slow Professor: Challenging the Culture of Speed in the Academy, p. x. Toronto: Toronto University Press. 2016.</ref> Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality have been cited as possible ways of alleviating such problems.<ref>Maggie Berg & Barbara Seeber. The Slow Professor: Challenging the Culture of Speed in the Academy. Toronto: Toronto University Press. 2016. (passim)</ref>