Translation

====Islamic world====
Translation of material into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] expanded after the creation of [[Arabic script]] in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of [[Islam]] and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the [[Madrasah of Al-Karaouine|Al-Karaouine]] ([[Fes]], [[Morocco]]), [[Al-Azhar Madrasah|Al-Azhar]] ([[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]), and the [[Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad]]. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions.

Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the [[Renaissance]], Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic, and to a lesser degree Persian, became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions.

In the 19th century, after the [[Middle East]]'s [[Islam]]ic clerics and copyists
{{blockquote|had conceded defeat in their centuries-old battle to contain the corrupting effects of the [[printing press]], [an] explosion in publishing ... ensued. Along with expanding secular education, printing transformed an overwhelmingly illiterate society into a partly literate one.

In the past, the [[sheikh]]s and the government had exercised a monopoly over knowledge. Now an expanding elite benefitted from a stream of information on virtually anything that interested them. Between 1880 and 1908... more than six hundred newspapers and periodicals were founded in Egypt alone.

The most prominent among them was ''al-Muqtataf'' ... [It] was the popular expression of a '''translation movement''' that had begun earlier in the century with military and medical manuals and highlights from the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] canon. ([[Montesquieu]]'s ''Considerations on the Romans'' and [[Fénelon]]'s ''Telemachus'' had been favorites.)<ref name = debellaigue77>[[Christopher de Bellaigue]], "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, ''Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950'', University of Chicago Press), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXII, no. 10 (June 4, 2015), p. 77.</ref>}}

A translator who contributed mightily to the advance of the Islamic Enlightenment was the Egyptian cleric Rifaa al-Tahtawi (1801–73), who had spent five years in [[Paris]] in the late 1820s, teaching religion to [[Muslims|Muslim]] students. After returning to Cairo with the encouragement of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] (1769–1849), the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] viceroy of Egypt, al–Tahtawi became head of the new school of languages and embarked on an intellectual revolution by initiating a program to translate some two thousand European and Turkish volumes, ranging from ancient texts on geography and geometry to [[Voltaire]]'s biography of [[Peter the Great]], along with the ''[[Marseillaise]]'' and the entire ''[[Code Napoléon]]''. This was the biggest, most meaningful importation of foreign thought into Arabic since [[Abbasid]] times (750–1258).<ref>[[Malise Ruthven]], "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of [[Christopher de Bellaigue]], ''The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times'', Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, ''Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century'', Cambridge University Press), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 22.</ref>

{{blockquote|In France al-Tahtawi had been struck by the way the French language... was constantly renewing itself to fit modern ways of living. Yet [[Arabic]] has its own sources of reinvention. The root system that Arabic shares with other [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] tongues such as Hebrew is capable of expanding the meanings of words using structured [[consonant]]al variations: the word for airplane, for example, has the same root as the word for bird.<ref>[[Malise Ruthven]], "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of [[Christopher de Bellaigue]], ''The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times'', Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa, ''Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century'', Cambridge University Press), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 24.</ref>}}

[[File:Muhammad Abduh (trimmed).JPG|thumb|upright=.8|[[Muhammad Abduh]]]]
The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and [[Ottoman Turkey|Ottoman]] [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized [[civil service]] expressed [[skepticism]], writes [[Christopher de Bellaigue]], "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today ... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the [[neologisms]] that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was ''"darwiniya"'', or "[[Darwinism]]".<ref name = debellaigue77/>

One of the most influential liberal Islamic thinkers of the time was [[Muhammad Abduh]] (1849–1905), Egypt's senior judicial authority—its chief [[mufti]]—at the turn of the 20th century and an admirer of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] who in 1903 visited Darwin's exponent [[Herbert Spencer]] at his home in [[Brighton]]. Spencer's view of [[social organism|society as an organism]] with its own laws of evolution paralleled Abduh's ideas.<ref>[[Christopher de Bellaigue]], "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, ''Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950''), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 77–78.</ref>

After [[World War I]], when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the [[Sykes-Picot agreement]]—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] emerged in Egypt, the [[House of Saud]] took over the [[Hijaz]], and regimes led by army officers came to power in [[Iran]] and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes [[Christopher de Bellaigue|de Bellaigue]], "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western [[Imperialism|empire-builders]]." As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as [[Muhammad Abduh]], largely had to yield to retrograde currents.<ref>[[Christopher de Bellaigue]], "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry, ''Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950''), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 78.</ref>
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