Rome

===Monarchy and republic===
{{Main|Ancient Rome|Roman Kingdom|Roman Republic}}
[[File:Foro_Boario_Portuno_04.jpg|thumb|The [[Temple of Portunus]], god of grain storage, keys, livestock and ports,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fowler|first1=W. Warde|title=Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic|date=1899|publisher=Kennikat Press|pages=202–204}}</ref> built between 120 and 80 BC]]
[[File:Foro Romano visto dai Musei Capitolini Roma.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Forum]] contains the ruins of the buildings that represented the political, legal, religious and economic centre of ancient Rome, constituting the "nerve centre" of all Roman civilisation.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Roman Forum |website=World History Encyclopedia |date=18 January 2012 |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/26/the-roman-forum/ |access-date=22 August 2019 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420181638/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/26/the-roman-forum/ |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

After the foundation by Romulus according to a legend,{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=73}} Rome was ruled for a period of 244 years by a [[monarchy|monarchical system]], initially with sovereigns of [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latin]] and [[Sabines|Sabine]] origin, later by [[Etruscans|Etruscan]] kings. The tradition handed down seven kings: [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]], [[Tullus Hostilius]], [[Ancus Marcius]], [[Tarquinius Priscus]], [[Servius Tullius]] and [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus]].{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=73}}

In 509 BC, the Romans expelled the last king from their city and established an [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]]. Rome then began a period characterised by internal struggles between [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]] (aristocrats) and [[Plebs|plebeians]] (small landowners), and by constant warfare against the populations of central Italy: Etruscans, Latins, [[Volsci]], [[Aequi]], and [[Marsi]].{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=77}} After becoming master of [[Latium]], Rome led several wars (against the [[Gauls]], [[Osci]]-[[Samnites]] and the Greek colony of [[Taranto]], allied with [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], king of [[Epirus]]) whose result was the conquest of the [[Italian peninsula]], from the central area up to [[Magna Graecia]].{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=79}}

The third and second century BC saw the establishment of Roman hegemony over the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Balkans]], through the three [[Punic Wars]] (264–146 BC) fought against the city of [[Carthage]] and the three [[Macedonian Wars]] (212–168 BC) against [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]].{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | pp=81–83}} The first [[Roman province]]s were established at this time: [[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicily]], [[Corsica et Sardinia|Sardinia and Corsica]], [[Hispania]], [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] and [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]].{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | pp=81–85}}

From the beginning of the 2nd century BC, power was contested between two groups of aristocrats: the [[optimates]], representing the conservative part of the [[Roman senate|Senate]], and the [[populares]], which relied on the help of the [[plebs]] (urban lower class) to gain power. In the same period, the bankruptcy of the small farmers and the establishment of large slave estates caused large-scale migration to the city. The continuous warfare led to the establishment of a professional army, which turned out to be more loyal to its generals than to the republic. Because of this, in the second half of the second century and during the first century BC there were conflicts both abroad and internally: after the failed attempt of social reform of the populares [[Tiberius Gracchus|Tiberius]] and [[Gaius Gracchus]],{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=89}} and the war against [[Jugurtha]],{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=89}} there was [[Sulla's civil war|a civil war]] from which the general [[Sulla]] emerged victorious.{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=89}} A [[Third Servile War|major slave revolt]] under [[Spartacus]] followed,{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=91}} and then the establishment of the [[first Triumvirate]] with [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Pompey]] and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]].{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=91}}

The conquest of [[Gaul]] made Caesar immensely powerful and popular, which led to a [[Caesar's Civil War|second civil war]] against the Senate and Pompey. After his victory, Caesar established himself as [[Dictator perpetuo|dictator for life]].{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=91}} His assassination led to a [[second Triumvirate]] among [[Octavian]] (Caesar's grandnephew and heir), [[Mark Antony]] and [[Lepidus]], and to [[Final War of the Roman Republic|another civil war]] between Octavian and Antony.{{sfn | Kinder | Hilgemann | 1964 | p=93}}