Philosophy

=== Arabic–Persian ===
{{main|Islamic philosophy|Iranian philosophy}}
[[File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase|Portrait of [[Avicenna]] on a silver vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the [[Islamic Golden Age]].]]
Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the [[Kalam|Islamic theological tradition]]. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the [[Quran]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|Taylor|2004|p=1}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic–Persian Philosophy}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=5–6}} }}</ref>

[[Al-Kindi]] (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between [[reason]] and [[faith]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Esposito|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA246 246]}} |2={{harvnb|Nasr|Leaman|2013|loc=11. Al-Kindi}} |3={{harvnb|Nasr|2006|pp=109–110}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2020|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> [[Avicenna]] (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gutas|2016}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Sina (Avicenna)}} }}</ref> [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed [[The Incoherence of the Philosophers|critique of philosophy]] and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=140–146}} |2={{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cU7cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} |3={{harvnb|Griffel|2020|loc=Lead Section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî's "Refutations" of Falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam}} }}</ref> Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Rushd (Averroes)}} |2={{harvnb|Kaminski|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KDUyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 32]}} }}</ref> [[Mulla Sadra]] (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Rizvi|2021|loc=Lead Section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology}} |2={{harvnb|Chamankhah|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2GGtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} }}</ref> The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of [[Islamic modernism]], which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moaddel|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dk6BLopmn3gC&pg=PA1 1–2]}} |2={{harvnb|Masud|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LxKrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 237–238]}} |3={{harvnb|Safi|2005|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/modernism-islamic-modernism Lead Section]}} }}</ref>