Nelson Mandela

=== Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954 ===
[[File:Flag of the African National Congress.svg|thumb|The ANC's tricolour flag; black for the people, green for the land, and gold for the resources of Africa{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=26}}]]

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=168|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=44|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=55–56}} and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=176|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=47|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=78|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=88|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=63–64}} In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian and communist activists to call a [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] [[general strike]] in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the [[Suppression of Communism Act, 1950]], affecting the actions of all protest groups.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=38–40|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=48–49|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=165–167|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=74–75|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=81–83|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=61–62}} At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=176|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=78|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=63–64}}

Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=42|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=55|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=94}} Influenced by friends like [[Moses Kotane]] and by the [[Soviet Union]]'s support for [[wars of national liberation]], his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by [[Karl Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], eventually embracing the [[Marxist philosophy]] of [[dialectical materialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=177–172|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=45, 47|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=75–76|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=87|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=64–65}} Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a [[classless society]] which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=172}} In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=165|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=53|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=77|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=92}} although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=170|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=94|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=103}}

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint [[Defiance Campaign]] against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of [[nonviolent resistance]] influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=44–46|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=56–58|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=182–183|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=77, 80|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=88–89|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=66–67}} At a [[Durban]] rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=183–188|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=52, 53|32a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=81–83|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=88–89|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=69}} These events established Mandela as one of the best-known black political figures in South Africa.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=47}} With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the [[Public Safety Act, 1953]] to permit [[martial law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=188–192|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=68}} In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC president [[J. B. Marks]] from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=194–195|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=85|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=72–73}}

[[File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mandela House|Mandela's former home]] in the Johannesburg township of [[Soweto]]]]

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the [[Suppression of Communism Act]] and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu and [[Yusuf Dadoo]]—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' [[hard labour]] was [[Suspended sentence|suspended]] for two years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=50–51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=195–198|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=83–84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=92|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=71–72}} In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=64|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=199–200, 204|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=86|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=73}} In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a [[Clandestine cell system|cell structure]] with a more centralised leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=58–59|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=60|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=205–207, 231|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=58|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=107–108|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=116–117|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=81–82, 84–85}}

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=209–210|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=87|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=95|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=7}} In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, [[Mandela and Tambo]], operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved black people, often dealing with cases of [[police brutality]]. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the [[Group Areas Act]]; as a result, their clientele dwindled.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=54–57|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=61|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=210–216|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=73|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=87–93|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=95–101|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=77–80}} As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the black community.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=28–29, 75}} Although a second daughter, [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe Phumia]], was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member [[Lillian Ngoyi]] and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=103–104|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=95–99, 105–106}} Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=293–294|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=104–105|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=98–99, 105–106|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=76–77}}
Description	What you type	What you get
Italic	''Italic text''	Italic text
Bold	'''Bold text'''	Bold text
Bold & italic	'''''Bold & italic text'''''	*Bold & italic text*
Description	What you type	What you get
Reference	Page text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>	Page text.^[1]
Named reference	Page text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>	Page text.^[2]
Additional use of the same reference	Page text.<ref name="test" />	Page text.^[2]
Display references	<references />	↑ Link text, additional text. ↑ Link text