Lutheranism

===Revivals===
[[File:A Tidemand-Haugianerne.jpg|thumb|A 19th century [[Haugean movement|Haugean]] [[conventicle]]|alt=]]
[[File:Olbers.jpg|thumb|The ''Olbers'', one of the ships that carried Old Lutherans to the [[Western Hemisphere]]]]
[[File:Konfirmaatio Aholansaari 2009.JPG|thumb|Representing a continuous tradition of the [[Awakening (Finnish religious movement)|Finnish Awakening]], youth are confirmed at [[Paavo Ruotsalainen]]'s homestead in [[Nilsiä]], Finland.|alt=]]
Luther scholar [[Johann Georg Hamann]] (1730–1788), a layman, became famous for countering Rationalism and striving to advance a [[Christian revival#19th century|revival]] known as the ''Erweckung'', or ''Awakening''.<ref name=Gritsch180>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA180 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 180.</ref> In 1806, [[War of the Fourth Coalition|Napoleon's invasion of Germany]] promoted Rationalism and angered German Lutherans, stirring up a desire among the people to preserve Luther's theology from the Rationalist threat. Those associated with this ''Awakening'' held that reason was insufficient and pointed out the importance of emotional religious experiences.<ref name="Armin Sierszyn p. 155">Armin Sierszyn: 2000 Jahre Kirchengeschichte, Book.4, Die Neuzeit, p. 155</ref><ref name="Suelflow, Roy A. 1967. p. 10">Suelflow, Roy A. ''Walking With Wise Men''. Milwaukee: [[South Wisconsin District (LCMS)]], 1967. p. 10</ref>

Small groups sprang up, often in universities, which devoted themselves to Bible study, reading devotional writings, and revival meetings. Although the beginning of this ''Awakening'' tended heavily toward Romanticism, [[patriotism]], and experience, the emphasis of the ''Awakening'' shifted around 1830 to restoring the traditional liturgy, doctrine, and confessions of Lutheranism in the [[Neo-Lutheranism|Neo-Lutheran]] movement.<ref name="Armin Sierszyn p. 155"/><ref name="Suelflow, Roy A. 1967. p. 10"/>

This Awakening swept through all of [[Scandinavia]] except [[Iceland]].<ref name="Latourette p.165">[[Kenneth Scott Latourette|Latourette, Kenneth Scott]]. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 165.</ref> It developed from both German Neo-Lutheranism and Pietism. Danish pastor and philosopher [[N. F. S. Grundtvig]] reshaped church life throughout Denmark through a reform movement beginning in 1830. He also wrote about 1,500 hymns, including ''[[God's Word Is Our Great Heritage]]''.<ref name = Gritsch182>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA182 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 182.</ref>

In [[Norway]], [[Hans Nielsen Hauge]], a lay street preacher, emphasized spiritual discipline and sparked the [[Haugean]] movement,<ref name= Gritsch183>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA183 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 183.</ref> which was followed by the ''[[Gisle Johnson|Johnsonian Awakening]]'' within the state-church.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6QszAQAAQBAJ&dq=%22usually+referred+to+as+the+%27Johnsonian+awakening%27%22&pg=PA22 Building God's Kingdom: Norwegian Missionaries in Highland Madagascar 1866–1903] by Karina Hestad Skeie, p. 22</ref> The ''Awakening'' drove the growth of foreign missions in Norway to non-Christians to a new height, which has never been reached since.<ref name="Latourette p.165"/> In Sweden, [[Lars Levi Læstadius]] began the [[Laestadianism|Laestadian movement]] that emphasized moral reform.<ref name=Gritsch183 /> In Finland, a farmer, [[Paavo Ruotsalainen]], began the [[Finnish Awakening]] when he took to preaching about repentance and prayer.<ref name=Gritsch183/>

In 1817, [[Frederick William III of Prussia]] ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his territory to unite, forming the [[Prussian Union of Churches]]. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the [[Prussian Union (Evangelical Christian Church)#Quarrels over the union|Schism of the Old Lutherans]]. Many Lutherans, called "[[Old Lutherans]]", chose to leave the state churches despite imprisonment and military force.<ref name = Gritsch180 /> Some formed independent church bodies, or "[[free church]]es", at home while [[Old Lutherans#North American migrations|others left]] for the United States, Canada and Australia. A similar legislated merger in [[Silesia]] prompted thousands to join the Old Lutheran movement. The dispute over ecumenism overshadowed other controversies within German Lutheranism.<ref>{{Cite book | year=1974 | contribution=Lutheran Churches | editor-last=Benton | editor-first=William | editor-link=William Benton (senator) | title=Encyclopædia Britannica | edition=15 | place=Chicago | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume=11 | page=198 | isbn=978-0-85229-290-7 }}</ref>

Despite political meddling in church life, local and national leaders sought to restore and renew Christianity. Neo-Lutheran [[Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe]] and Old Lutheran free church leader Friedrich August Brünn<ref>[http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=b&word=BRUNN.FRIEDRICHAUGUST Christian Cyclopedia article on Brünn]</ref> both sent young men overseas to serve as pastors to [[German American]]s, while the [[Inner Mission (Germany)|Inner Mission]] focused on renewing the situation home.<ref name=Gritsch184>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA184 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 184.</ref> [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], [[superintendent (ecclesiastical)|superintendent]] at Weimar and part of the Inner Mission movement, joined with the Romantic movement with his quest to preserve human emotion and experience from Rationalism.<ref name=Gritsch187>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA187 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 187.</ref>

[[Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg]], though raised Reformed, became convinced of the truth of historic Lutheranism as a young man.<ref name=KSL21>[[Kenneth Scott Latourette|Latourette, Kenneth Scott]]. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe.'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1959, p. 21.</ref> He led the Neo-Lutheran ''Repristination School'' of theology, which advocated a return to the orthodox theologians of the 17th century and opposed modern Bible scholarship.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Repristination Theology |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=6 Apr 2010 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498536/Repristination-Theology}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2019}} As editor of the periodical ''[[Evangelische Kirchenzeitung]]'', he developed it into a major support of Neo-Lutheran revival and used it to attack all forms of theological liberalism and rationalism. Although he received a large amount of slander and ridicule during his forty years at the head of revival, he never gave up his positions.<ref name=KSL21/>

The theological faculty at the [[University of Erlangen]] in [[Bavaria]] became another force for reform.<ref name=KSL21/> There, professor [[Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless|Adolf von Harless]], though previously an adherent of rationalism and [[German idealism]], made Erlangen a magnet for revival oriented theologians.<ref name=KSL22>[[Kenneth Scott Latourette|Latourette, Kenneth Scott]]. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe.'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 22.</ref> Termed the ''Erlangen School'' of theology, they developed a new version of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]],<ref name=KSL22/> which they felt emphasized the humanity of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] better than the ecumenical creeds.<ref name=HJN175>Nichols, James Hastings. History of Christianity 1650–1950: Secularization of the West. New York, Ronald Press, 1956, p. 175.</ref> As theologians, they used both modern historical critical and Hegelian philosophical methods instead of attempting to revive the orthodoxy of the 17th century.<ref>Gassmann, Günther, et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Htz8M1Xlqi4C&pg=PA32 Historical dictionary of Lutheranism]. Augsburg Fortress, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2001. p. 32.</ref>

[[Friedrich Julius Stahl]] led the ''[[High Church Lutheranism|High Church Lutherans]]''. Though raised Jewish, he was baptized as a Christian at the age of 19 through the influence of the Lutheran school he attended. As the leader of a [[neofeudalism|neofeudal]] Prussian political party, he campaigned for the [[divine right of kings]], the power of the [[Junker|nobility]], and [[episcopal polity]] for the church. Along with [[Theodor Kliefoth]] and [[August Friedrich Christian Vilmar]], he promoted agreement with the Roman Catholic Church with regard to the [[Magisterium|authority of the institutional church]], [[ex opere operato]] effectiveness of the sacraments, and the divine authority of clergy. Unlike Catholics, however, they also urged complete agreement with the ''Book of Concord''.<ref name=HJN175/>

The Neo-Lutheran movement managed to slow secularism and counter atheistic [[Marxism]], but it did not fully succeed in Europe.<ref name=Gritsch184/> It partly succeeded in continuing the Pietist movement's drive to right social wrongs and focus on individual conversion. The Neo-Lutheran call to renewal failed to achieve widespread popular acceptance because it both began and continued with a lofty, idealistic [[Romanticism]] that did not connect with an increasingly [[Second Industrial Revolution#Socio-economic impacts|industrialized]] and [[Religion in Europe#Irreligion|secularized]] Europe.<ref name=Gritsch188>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA188 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 188.</ref> The work of local leaders resulted in specific areas of vibrant spiritual renewal, but people in Lutheran areas became increasingly distant from church life.<ref name=Gritsch184/> Additionally, the revival movements were divided by philosophical traditions. The Repristination school and Old Lutherans tended towards Kantianism, while the Erlangen school promoted a [[Right Hegelians#Hegelian theologians|conservative Hegelian perspective]]. By 1969, Manfried Kober complained that "unbelief is rampant" even within German Lutheran parishes.<ref>Detzler, Wayne A. ''The Changing Church in Europe.'' Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979. p. 17. Quotation from Manfred Kober, ''Theology in Germany'', from the Reformation Review, April 1969.</ref>