India

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of India}}
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]], a part of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], began a north-eastward [[Plate tectonics|drift]] caused by [[seafloor spreading]] to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Simultaneously, the vast [[Tethys Ocean|Tethyan]] [[oceanic crust]], to its northeast, began to [[subduction|subduct]] under the [[Eurasian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian [[continental crust]] eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the [[Himalayas]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped [[trough (geology)|trough]] that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment{{sfn|Dikshit |Schwartzberg|2023|p=7}} and now constitutes the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].{{sfn|Prakash et al.|2000}} The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient [[Aravalli range]], which extends from the [[Delhi Ridge]] in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the [[Thar Desert]], the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.<ref name="aravalli">{{harvnb|Kaul|1970|p=160}}, "&nbsp;The Aravalli range boldy defines the eastern limit of the arid and semi-arid zone. Probably the more humid conditions that prevail near the Aravallis prevented the extension of aridity towards the east and the Ganges Valley. It is noteworthy that, wherever there are gaps in this range, sand has advanced to the east of it."</ref><ref name="prasad-aravalli">{{harvnb|Prasad|1974|p=372}}, "&nbsp;The topography of the Indian Desert is dominated by the Aravalli Ranges on its eastern border, which consist largely of tightly folded and highly metamorphosed Archaean rocks."</ref><ref name="fisher-aravalli">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=83}}, "&nbsp;East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals."</ref>

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 1
| total_width       = 220
| image_style       = border:none;
| align             = left
| image1            = Tungabhadra River and Coracle Boats.JPG
| caption1          = The [[Tungabhadra river|Tungabhadra]], with rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular [[Krishna river]].{{sfn|Mcgrail|Blue|Kentley|Palmer|2003|p=257}}
| image2            = Parked boats at Anjarle Creek.jpg
| caption2          = Fishing boats lashed together in a [[creek (tidal)|tidal creek]] in [[Anjarle]] village, Maharashtra
}}

The remaining Indian Plate survives as [[South India|peninsular India]], the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the [[Satpura Range|Satpura]] and [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya]] ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in Jharkhand in the east.{{sfn|Dikshit |Schwartzberg|2023|p=8}} To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the [[Deccan Plateau]], is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the [[Western Ghats|Western]] and [[Eastern Ghats]];{{sfn|Dikshit |Schwartzberg|2023|pp=9–10}} the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude{{efn|The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed [[Siachen Glacier]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]; however, the [[Government of India]] regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point.}} and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.{{sfn|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting|2007|p = 1}}

India's coastline measures {{Convert|7517|km|mi|-2}} in length; of this distance, {{Convert|5423|km|mi|-2}} belong to peninsular India and {{Convert|2094|km|mi|-2}} to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.{{sfn|Kumar|Pathak|Pednekar|Raju|2006}} According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% [[mudflat]]s or marshy shores.{{sfn|Kumar|Pathak|Pednekar|Raju|2006}}

<!---
{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:KedarRange.jpg|thumb|left|The Kedar range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind the [[Kedarnath Temple]] in the Indian state of [[Uttarakhand]]. Snow melt from the glaciers behind Kedarnath forms the [[Mandakini river]], one of the [[River source|headstreams]] of the [[Ganges river]].<ref name="Sen2019">{{Citation |last=Sudipta Sen |title=Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FOV8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT47 |page=47 |year=2019 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-24267-6}} Quote: "The confluence of rivers, especially of the Ganges and its tributaries, is one of the most significant geographical spaces for the pilgrim, ... A common name for such a place in Sanskrit ... is prayaga, ... such as [[Rudraprayag]], situated at the meeting of two rivers: the Mandakini River, coming down from the steep glaciers beyond Kedarnath, and Alaknanda River, making its way from [[Badrinath]]."</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Agasthiyamalai range and Tirunelveli rainshadow.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Agasthiyamalai]] range, constituting the southern end of the [[Western Ghats]], as seen from the [[rainshadow]] region of the [[southwest monsoon]] in [[Tirunelveli]], [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Oates1999">{{Citation |last=Oates |first=John F. |title=Myth and Reality in the Rain Forest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0WFszVK5lQC&pg=PA35 |page=35 |year=1999 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-22252-6}} Quote: "The Agastyamalai are the most southerly portion of the Western Ghats. These wet and rugged hills are one of the last places in South India to support an extensive area of evergreen shola forest, and they are home to what may be the largest surviving population of lion-tailed macaques"</ref>]]
|2=[[File:Tungabhadra River and Coracle Boats.JPG|thumb|left|Flowing near [[Hampi]] is the [[Tungabhadra river]], the major right bank tributary of the [[Krishna river]], a peninsular river, which empties into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The [[coracle]]s, made of wicker, are traditionally covered with hide, their circular shape preventing them from overturning in rivers with rocky outcrops.{{sfn|Mcgrail|Blue|Kentley|Palmer|2003|p=257}}]]
|3=[[File:Puvar 20080220-1.jpg|thumb|left|A beach off the [[Arabian Sea]] in [[Puvar]], [[Kerala]]. The Arabian Sea is the northwestern region of the Indian Ocean, bounded by the [[Arabian peninsula|Arabian]] and [[Indian peninsula|Indian]] peninsulas.]]
|4=[[File:Thar desert Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Thar desert]], 85% of which lies in the Indian state of [[Rajasthan]], spreads over an area of {{convert|2340000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.  It constitutes the northwestern limit of the [[southwest monsoon]].<ref name="Laity2009">{{Citation |last=Laity |first=Julie J |title=Deserts and Desert Environments |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtAbzLLTcwcC&pg=PA30 |page=30 |year=2009 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4443-0074-1}}</ref>]]
|5=[[File:NDRF in Bihar Flood 2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kosi river]], shown here during a flood, rises in Nepal, rushes down with great force through its narrow Himalayan valley, and [[debouch]]es in a flat plain in [[Bihar]], India, where the river bed has risen so much from deposited silt that the river attempts to find a new course.{{sfn|Basu|Xavier|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}}]]
|6=[[File:Andaman.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Andaman Islands]], in the [[Andaman Sea]], number over 200, and extend north by northeast to south by southwest. They rise up to {{convert|2400|ft|m}} and receive over {{convert|100|in|cm}} of rain annually.<ref name="SpateLearmonth2017">{{citation |last1=Spate|first1=O.H.K.|last2=Learmonth|first2=A.T.A.|title=India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-fDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1153|year=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-96898-0|page=1153</ref>]]
|7=[[File:Mt. Kanchenjunga.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kanchenjunga|Khangchendzonga]] [[massif]], shows Mount Khangchendzonga Central, in the middle, the world's third highest mountain at {{convert|28169|ft|m}} located on the border of India's [[Sikkim]] state and [[Nepal]].<ref name="unesco-kangchenjunga">{{Citation |title=Khangchendzonda National Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513 |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820000450/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513 |url-status=live |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |archive-date=20 August 2019}}</ref>]]
}}-->
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the [[Ganges]] and the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], both of which drain into the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=15}} Important tributaries of the Ganges include the [[Yamuna]] and the [[Kosi River|Kosi]]; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.{{sfn|Duff|1993|p = 353}}{{sfn|Basu|Xavier|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}} Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the [[Godavari River|Godavari]], the [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]], the [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]], and the [[Krishna River|Krishna]], which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=16}} and the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and the [[Tapti River|Tapti]], which drain into the [[Arabian Sea]].{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=17}} Coastal features include the marshy [[Rann of Kutch]] of western India and the alluvial [[Sundarbans]] delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=12}} India has two [[archipelago]]s: the [[Lakshadweep]], [[Atoll|coral atolls]] off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the [[Andaman Sea]].{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=13}}

[[Climate of India|Indian climate]] is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter [[monsoon]]s.{{sfn|Chang|1967|pp = 391–394}} The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian [[katabatic wind]]s from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.{{sfn|Posey|1994|p = 118}}{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = 4}} The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.{{sfn|Chang|1967|pp = 391–394}} Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: [[Climate of India#Tropical wet|tropical wet]], [[Climate of India#Arid and semi-arid regions|tropical dry]], [[Climate of India#Subtropical humid|subtropical humid]], and [[Climate of India#Mountain|montane]].{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|p=97}}

Temperatures in India have risen by {{convert|0.7|C-change|1|abbr=on}} between 1901 and 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Vibha |date=15 June 2020 |title=Average temperature over India projected to rise by 4.4 degrees Celsius: Govt report on impact of climate change in country |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/average-temperature-over-india-projected-to-rise-by-4-4-degrees-celsius-govt-report-on-impact-of-climate-change-in-country-99583 |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[The Tribune]]}}</ref> [[Climate change in India]] is often thought to be the cause. The [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|retreat of Himalayan glaciers]] has adversely affected the [[Volumetric flow rate|flow rate]] of the major Himalayan rivers, including the [[Ganges]] and the [[Brahmaputra]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sethi |first=Nitin |date=3 February 2007 |title=Global warming: Mumbai to face the heat |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/global-warming-mumbai-to-face-the-heat/articleshow/1556662.cms |access-date=11 March 2021 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Vivek |last2=Jain |first2=Manoj Kumar |year=2018 |title=Investigation of multi-model spatiotemporal mesoscale drought projections over India under climate change scenario |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002216941830773X |journal=[[Journal of Hydrology]] |volume=567 |pages=489–509 |bibcode=2018JHyd..567..489G |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.012 |issn=0022-1694 |s2cid=135053362}}</ref>