Conversion to Christianity

==Methods of conversion==
=== Coercion ===
While Christian theologians, such as the fourth century Augustine and the ninth century Alcuin, have long maintained that conversion must be voluntary, there are [[Forced conversion#Christianity|historical examples of coercion]] in conversion to Christianity.{{sfn|Allott|1974|p=72}}{{sfn|Brown|1963|pp=107-116}} Constantine used both law and force to eradicate the practice of sacrifice and repress heresy though not specifically to promote conversion.{{sfn|Leithart|2010|p=302}}{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=498}} Theodosius also wrote laws to eliminate heresies, but made no requirement for pagans or Jews to convert to Christianity.{{sfn|Brown|1963|p=286}}{{sfn|Sáry|2019|pp=72-74, 77}}{{sfn|Hebblewhite|2020|loc=chapter 8|p=82}} However, the sixth century Eastern Roman emperor [[Justinian I]] and the seventh century emperor [[Heraclius]] attempted to force cultural and religious uniformity by requiring baptism of the Jews.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2012|p=3}}{{sfn|Irmscher|1988|p=166}}{{sfn|Sharf|1955|pp=103-104}}{{sfn|Lichtenberger|Raja|2018|pp=85–98}} In 612, the Visigothic [[Sisebut|King Sisebut]], prompted by Heraclius, declared the obligatory conversion of all Jews in Spain.{{sfn|García-Arenal|Glazer-Eytan|2019|pp=5–6}} In the many new nation-states being formed in Eastern Europe of the [[Late Middle Ages]], some kings and princes pressured their people to adopt the new religion.{{sfn|Štefan|2022|p=101}} And in the [[Northern crusades]], the fighting princes obtained widespread conversion through political pressure or military coercion even though the theologians continued to maintain that conversion must be voluntary.{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|p=24}}

===Baptism===
In all varieties of Christianity, baptism is the initiation rite for entrance into the Christian community.{{sfn|Inbody|2005|pp=284-285}} Almost all baptisms share in common the use of the Trinitarian formula (in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) by the minister while baptizing the convert.{{sfn|Stookey|1982|p=27}} Two aspects of baptism are sources of disagreement: mode and meaning. In ''Understanding Four Views on Baptism'' editors have written that Christians disagree on the meaning of baptism and whether it is a necessary aspect of conversion or simply demonstration of a conversion that has already taken place.{{sfn|Armstrong|Engle|2009|p=163}}
[[File:Child baptism with water.jpg|thumb|upright|Baptism of a child by affusion]] 
There are also different modes of baptism in Christianity. These include [[Immersion baptism|immersion]] (dunking), [[affusion]] (pouring), and [[aspersion]] (sprinkling). The most common practice in the ancient church was baptism by immersion of the whole head and body of an adult.{{sfn|Jensen|2012|p=371}} It remained common into the Middle Ages and is still found in the Eastern church, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches, and in most Protestant denominations.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=827}}

Historian [[Philip Schaff]] has written that sprinkling, or pouring of water on the head of a sick or dying person, where immersion was impractical, was also practiced in ancient times and up through the twelfth century, and is currently practiced in most of the West.{{sfn|Schaff|1882|p=469}} However, according to the ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' affusion has become the most common practice of the Western churches.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=24}}

[[Infant baptism]] was controversial for the [[Protestant Reformers]], and remains so for some Protestants, but according to Schaff, it was practiced by the ancients and is neither required nor forbidden in the [[New Testament]].{{sfn|Schaff|1882|p=470}}

The mode of baptism often depends on the denomination one enters, and in some cases, personal choice. Many Anglicans and Lutherans baptize by affusion. Presbyterians and Congregationalists accept baptism by pouring or sprinkling. Steven W. Lemke writes that the Presbyterian [[Westminster Confession]] says, “Dipping of the person into the water is not necessary".{{sfn|Lemke|2008|p=31}} Baptists disagree. Many Evangelical Protestants, such as Baptists, insist that only full immersion baptism is valid. The Second London and Philadelphia confessions of the Baptists affirm that “immersion, or dipping of the person in water, is necessary". Baptism by immersion is again affirmed in Article 7 of the BF&M [Baptist Faith and Message]".{{sfn|Lemke|2008|p=31}} Others, like Methodists, may conduct all three forms of baptism.{{sfn|Jagger|1971|p=407}}

===Denominational switching===
Switching from one Christian denomination, such as Presbyterianism, to another Christian denomination, such as Catholicism, has not generally been seen by researchers as conversion to Christianity. Mark C. Suchman says this is because most sociologists and other scientists have defined conversion as "radical personal change, particularly change involving a shift in one's sense of 'root reality'."{{sfn|Suchman|1992|p=S15}} However, in Suchman's view, this produces a form of 'selection bias' within the research.{{sfn|Suchman|1992|p=S16}} He writes that the study of "everyday" religious mobility is not a substitute for analyses of "true conversion," but the denominational switching that he refers to as "religious mobility" can be seen as an aspect of conversion.{{sfn|Suchman|1992|pp=S16-S17}}

Suchman describes six types, or causes, of "religious mobility" as a supplement and complement to the more traditionally limited concept of conversion.{{sfn|Suchman|1992|pp=S17-S18}} He draws on theories from the sociology of deviance where there is some recognition that "a change of religious affiliation generally represents a break with previous norms and a severing of social commitments - even when it does not involve a radical personality realignment".{{sfn|Suchman|1992|p=S18}}

Theories of deviance define what can be considered as the variables and determinants involved and what kind of mobility can be seen as random.{{sfn|Suchman|1992|pp=S18-S19}} "Strain theory" argues that those who are unhappy in their religious affiliation will generally "engage in deviance" from that group.{{sfn|Suchman|1992|pp=S19-S20}} Those who are not well integrated in their religious social group, those who become enmeshed in social relations outside the group with participants in deviant cultures, and those whose ethnicity and traditional background differs from their current affiliation are candidates for switching.{{sfn|Suchman|1992|pp=S20-S21}} Intermarriage, with partners of different religions and/or denominations, is also associated with religious switching.{{sfn|Suchman|1992|p=S21}}

=== Confirmation ===
{{Main|Confirmation}}
Theologian Knut Alfsvåg writes that [[confirmation]] was first introduced by Pope Innocent I in the 5th century as part of the unified sacrament of baptism, chrismation (confirmation) and first communion that was commonly accepted by the 12th century. It was formally designated a sacrament in 1274 by the Council of Lyon.{{sfn|Alfsvåg|2022|pp=1, 6}}{{sfn|Warnke|1971|p=n/a}} Baptism, along with the declaration and instruction involved in confirmation, and the Eucharist, have remained the essential elements of initiation in all Christian communities, however, Alfsvåg writes that confirmation has differing status in different denominations.{{sfn|Alfsvåg|2022|p=1}}
[[File:(1918) Cape Mount, Confirmation Class.jpg|thumb|Confirmation class of 1918 at Cape Mount|alt=photo from 1918 of African children all dressed in white for confirmation at Cape Mount]]
Some see baptism, confirmation, and communion as elements of a unified sacrament  through which one becomes a Christian and part of the church.{{sfn|Alfsvåg|2022|p=1}} Also known as [[Chrismation]] by eastern Christians, under some circumstances, confirmation may be administered immediately after baptism. When an adult decides to convert to the Catholic or Orthodox Church, they become a "catechumen" and attend classes to learn what conversion means and requires. Once classes are completed and the candidate is baptized, adults can then be confirmed immediately following baptism. A clergy member will anoint their forehead, (or in the case of Byzantine Christians, the forehead, eyes, nostrils, mouth, ears, breast, hands, and feet), with the ''chrisma'' (oil) calling upon the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] to seal the convert with the gifts of the Spirit.{{sfn|Cabasilas|p=n/a|ps=: "Holy Baptism is the first of seven Sacraments in the Orthodox Christian Church. Together with the Sacrament of Holy Chrism (anointing with oil) it joins the candidate to the Mystical Body of Christ, the Church."}}

In Western churches that practice infant baptism, ([[Catholic Church]], the [[Church of England]], [[Anglicans]], [[Lutherans]], [[Presbyterians]], [[Congregationalists]], [[Methodists]], [[Church of the Nazarene|Nazarenes]], [[Moravians]], and [[United Protestants]]), infants who are baptized are not generally confirmed immediately except in cases of emergency such as illness or impending death. Otherwise, child candidates must wait till they are old enough to make a decision for themselves. Confirmation cannot occur until the candidate has participated in confirmation classes, demonstrated an adequate understanding of what they are agreeing to, and are able to profess "with their own mouth" their desire to be confirmed in their faith.{{sfn|Osmer|1996|pp=197-202}} In the Eastern Churches ([[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and the [[Church of the East]]), the rite is called [[chrismation]], and is done immediately after baptism, regardless of age.

To be fully in communion with the Catholic Church, (a phrase  used since c. 205), the Catholic Church requires a convert to have professed faith and practice the sacraments - baptism, confirmation and the Eucharist.{{sfn|Jakubiak|2021|p=164}} The Orthodox Church also maintains the tradition of baptism, chrismation and first communion as a united rite till this day, referring to chrismation as "the Pentecost of the individual" (a reference to the Holy Spirit).{{sfn|Alfsvåg|2022|p=5}}

The practice of confirmation was criticized during the Reformation by those who do not consider confirmation a condition for conversion to Christianity or being a fully accepted member of the church.{{sfn|Alfsvåg|2022|pp=1, 7}} Luther saw confirmation as “a churchly rite or sacramental ceremony,” but for Luther, it was baptism that was necessary and not confirmation.{{sfn|Warnke|1971|p=n/a}} John Wesley removed the rite altogether leaving Methodism with no rite of confirmation from 1785 to 1965.{{sfn|McAlilly|2019|p=iv}} These see confirmation as a combination of intercessory prayer and as a graduation ceremony after the period of instruction.{{sfn|Alfsvåg|2022|p=1}}