Cameroon

==Politics and government==
{{Main|Politics of Cameroon}}
[[File:YaoundeUnityPalace.png|thumb|Unity Palace – Cameroon Presidency]]
The [[List of presidents of Cameroon|President of Cameroon]] is elected and creates policy, administers government agencies, commands the [[Cameroon Armed Forces|armed forces]], negotiates and ratifies treaties, and declares a state of emergency.<ref name="Neba 250">[[#Neba|Neba]] 250.</ref> The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the [[Prime Minister of Cameroon|prime minister]] (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors and divisional officers.<ref name=msu>{{cite web|url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/cameroon/government|access-date=12 April 2013|title=Cameroon: Government|publisher=Michigan State University: Broad College of Business|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507153207/http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/cameroon/government|archive-date=7 May 2013}}</ref> The president is selected by popular vote every seven years.<ref name="CIA"/> There have been 2 presidents since the independence of Cameroon.

The [[National Assembly (Cameroon)|National Assembly]] makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year.<ref name=msu/> Laws are passed on a majority vote.<ref name="CIA"/> The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seat [[Senate (Cameroon)|Senate]]. The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and [[Lamido|lamibe]] to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.<ref name="State Dept"/><ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 252.</ref>

Cameroon's legal system is a mixture of [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[common law]], and [[customary law]].<ref name="CIA"/> Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]].<ref name="State Dept"/> The president appoints judges at all levels.<ref name=msu/> The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the [[Court of Appeal of Cameroon|court of appeal]], and the [[Supreme Court of Cameroon|supreme court]]. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member [[High Court of Justice (Cameroon)|High Court of Justice]] that judges high-ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/_anglais/institutionnel/cameroon.html|access-date=12 April 2013|title=Cameroon: Institutional Situation|publisher=Montesquieu University of Bordeaux|author=Abdourhamane, Boubacar Issa|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921001254/http://etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/_anglais/institutionnel/cameroon.html|archive-date=21 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/sectors-cameroon/government/|access-date=12 April 2013|title=Government in Cameroon|publisher=Commonwealth of Nations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328164623/http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/sectors-cameroon/government/|archive-date=28 March 2014}}</ref>

===Political culture===
[[File:Statue d'un chef coutumier à Bana.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A statue of a chief in [[Bana, Cameroon|Bana]], West Region]]
Cameroon [[Corruption in Cameroon|is viewed as rife with corruption]] at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational,<ref name="IRIN"/> and in 2012, [[Transparency International]] placed Cameroon at number 144 on a list of 176 countries ranked from least to most corrupt.<ref name=Corruption/> On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the [[National Anti-Corruption Observatory]].<ref name="IRIN"/> There are several high corruption risk areas in Cameroon, for instance, customs, public health sector and public procurement.<ref>{{cite web|title=Business Corruption in Cameroon|url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx|publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal|access-date=24 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx|archive-date=24 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the corruption has gotten worse, regardless of the existing anti-corruption bureaus, as Transparency International ranked Cameroon 152 on a list of 180 countries in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2018|title=2018 – CPI|website=Transparency.org|date=29 January 2019 |access-date=26 July 2020}}</ref>

President Biya's [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the [[Social Democratic Front (Cameroon)|Social Democratic Front]] (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by [[John Fru Ndi]].<ref name = "lergai">[[#West|West]] 11.</ref>

Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, which rivals contend were unfair.<ref name="DeLancey 9"/> Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.<ref name="Amnesty"/><ref name="Freedom House"/> In particular, English-speaking people are discriminated against; protests often escalate into violent clashes and killings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/ |title=Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon |author=Radina Gigova |date=15 December 2016 |publisher=CNN |access-date=17 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318083433/http://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/ |archive-date=18 March 2017 }}</ref> In 2017, President Biya shut down the Internet in the English-speaking region for 94 days, at the cost of hampering five million people, including [[Silicon Mountain]] startups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/03/africa/internet-shutdown-cameroon/ |title=Cameroon goes offline after Anglophone revolt |author=Kieron Monks |date=3 February 2017 |publisher=CNN |access-date=17 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318003526/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/03/africa/internet-shutdown-cameroon/ |archive-date=18 March 2017 }}</ref>

[[Freedom House]] ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties.<ref>Cameroon is rated at six in both categories on a scale of one to seven, with one being "most free" and seven being "least free". [[#House|Freedom House]].</ref> The last [[2020 Cameroonian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] were held on 9 February 2020.<ref name=Kandemeh/>

===Foreign relations===

{{Further|Foreign relations of Cameroon}}

[[File:Paul Biya with Obamas 2014.jpg|thumb|President [[Paul Biya]] with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] in 2014]]

Cameroon is a member of both the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and [[Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie|La Francophonie]].

Its [[Foreign relations of Cameroon|foreign policy]] closely follows that of its main ally, France (one of its former colonial rulers).<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 126</ref><ref>Ngoh 328.</ref> Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defence,<ref name="State Dept"/> although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 30.</ref>

President Biya has engaged in a decades-long clash with the government of Nigeria over possession of the oil-rich [[Bakassi]] peninsula.<ref name="lergai" /> Cameroon and Nigeria share a 1,000-mile (1,600&nbsp;km) border and have disputed the sovereignty of the Bakassi peninsula. In 1994 Cameroon petitioned the [[International Court of Justice]] to resolve the dispute. The two countries attempted to establish a cease-fire in 1996; however, fighting continued for years. In 2002, the ICJ ruled that the [[Anglo-German Agreement of 1913]] gave sovereignty to Cameroon. The ruling called for a withdrawal by both countries and denied the request by Cameroon for compensation due to Nigeria's long-term occupation.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/11/world/court-rules-for-cameroon-in-oil-dispute-with-nigeria.html|title=Court Rules for Cameroon In Oil Dispute With Nigeria|last=Banerjee|first=Marc Lacey With Neela|date=11 October 2002|work=The New York Times|access-date=4 February 2018|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130042/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/11/world/court-rules-for-cameroon-in-oil-dispute-with-nigeria.html|archive-date=5 February 2018}}</ref> By 2004, Nigeria had failed to meet the deadline to hand over the peninsula. A UN-mediated summit in June 2006 facilitated an agreement for Nigeria to withdraw from the region and both leaders signed the [[Greentree Agreement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sgsm11745.doc.htm|title=Agreement Transferring Authority over Bakassi Peninsula from Nigeria to Cameroon 'Triumph for the Rule of Law' Secretary-General Says in Message for Ceremony|website=www.un.org|language=en|access-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131052103/http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sgsm11745.doc.htm|archive-date=31 January 2018}}</ref> The withdrawal and handover of control was completed by August 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13148483|title=Cameroon profile|date=1 November 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=4 February 2018|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209213130/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13148483|archive-date=9 February 2018}}</ref>

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Cameroon, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending [[China]]'s [[Xinjiang re-education camps|treatment of Uyghurs]] in the [[Xinjiang]] region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Cameroonian Armed Forces}}
[[File:Vehicules militaires pendant le défilé7.jpg|thumb|Military vehicles during a parade]]
 
The Cameroon Armed Forces (French: ''Forces armées camerounaises'', FAC) consists of the country's army (''Armée de Terre''), the country's navy (''Marine Nationale de la République'' (MNR), includes naval infantry), the Cameroonian Air Force (''Armée de l'Air du Cameroun'', AAC), and the [[Gendarmerie]].<ref name="CIA" />
 
Males and females that are 18 years of age up to 23 years of age and have graduated high school are eligible for military service. Those who join are obliged to complete four years of service. There is no conscription in Cameroon, but the government makes periodic calls for volunteers.<ref name="CIA" />

===Human rights===
{{see also|Human rights in Cameroon}}
Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, [[LGBT rights in Cameroon|homosexuals]], and political activists.<ref name="Amnesty"/><ref name="Freedom House"/><ref name="Human Rights Report"/><ref name="EHRC"/> [[United Nations]] figures indicate that more than 21,000 people have fled to neighbouring countries, while 160,000 have been internally displaced by the violence, many reportedly hiding in forests.<ref name = "un">{{cite web |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23404&LangID=E |title=OHCHR – UN Human Rights Chief deeply alarmed by reports of serious rights breaches in Cameroon |publisher=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803014220/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23404&LangID=E |archive-date=3 August 2018}}</ref> Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,<ref name = "Human Rights Report"/><ref name="EHRC"/> and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government.<ref name="Freedom House"/> However, since the first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> On 25 July 2018, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Zeid Raad Al Hussein|Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein]] expressed deep concern about reports of violations and abuses in the English-speaking Northwest and Southwest regions of Cameroon.

According to OCHA, more than 1.7 million people are in need of humanitarian assistance in the north-west and south-west regions. OCHA also estimates that at least 628,000 people have been internally displaced by violence in the two regions, while more than 87,000 have fled to Nigeria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/cameroon/}}</ref><ref name="un"/>

[[LGBT rights in Cameroon|Same-sex sexual acts]] are banned by section 347-1 of the penal code with a penalty of from 6 months up to 5 years' imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2008.pdf|title=State-sponsored Homophobia: A world survey of laws prohibiting same sex activity between consenting adults|last=Ottosson|first=Daniel|date=May 2008|publisher=International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA)|page=11|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306021141/http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2008.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2009}}</ref>

Since December 2020, [[Human Rights Watch]] claimed that Islamist armed group Boko Haram has stepped up attacks and killed at least 80 civilians in towns and villages in the Far North region of Cameroon.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/05/cameroon-boko-haram-attacks-escalate-far-north|title=Cameroon: Boko Haram Attacks Escalate in Far North|date=5 April 2021|access-date=5 April 2021|publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{main|Regions of Cameroon|Departments of Cameroon}}
[[File:Provinces of Cameroon EN.svg|thumb|upright|Cameroon is divided into 10 regions.]]
The [[Constitution of Cameroon|constitution]] divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected [[Regional Council (Cameroon)|Regional Council]]. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.<ref name="Neba 250"/>

These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army, [[Gendarmerie|gendarmes]], and police.<ref name="Neba 250"/> All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.<ref name="history">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm|title=Cameroon|publisher=US Department of State|date=25 August 2011|access-date=24 September 2011}}</ref>

The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (French {{lang|fr|départements}}). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers ({{lang|fr|[[Prefect|préfets]]}}). The divisions are further split into sub-divisions ({{lang|fr|arrondissements}}), headed by assistant divisional officers ({{lang|fr|sous-prefets}}). The districts, administered by district heads ({{lang|fr|chefs de district}}), are the smallest administrative units.<ref name=unhchr>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/33bb745d595710e3c125693d0035f74b?Opendocument|access-date=12 April 2013|title=Core document forming part of the reports of States Parties: Cameroon|publisher=UNHCHR|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023091521/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/33bb745d595710e3c125693d0035f74b?Opendocument|archive-date=23 October 2015}}</ref>

The three northernmost regions are the [[Far North Region, Cameroon|Far North]] ({{lang|fr|Extrême Nord}}), [[North Region (Cameroon)|North]] ({{lang|fr|Nord}}), and [[Adamawa Region|Adamawa]] ({{lang|fr|Adamaoua}}). Directly south of them are the [[Centre Region (Cameroon)|Centre]] ({{lang|fr|Centre}}) and [[East Region (Cameroon)|East]] ({{lang|fr|Est}}). The [[South Region (Cameroon)|South Province]] ({{lang|fr|Sud}}) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller regions: the [[Littoral Region (Cameroon)|Littoral]] ({{lang|fr|Littoral}}) and [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|South-West]] ({{lang|fr|Sud-Ouest}}) regions are on the coast, and the [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|North-West]] ({{lang|fr|Nord-Ouest}}) and [[West Region (Cameroon)|West]] ({{lang|fr|Ouest}}) regions are in the western grassfields.<ref name=unhchr/>
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