Brahman

==== Atman: the ultimate reality ====
{{anchor | Atman }}

In addition to the concept of ''Brahman'', Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]—or Self, which is also considered ultimately real.<ref name=aegough/> The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the [[dualism (Indian philosophy)|dual]] and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from ''Brahman'', or same as ''Brahman''. Those that consider ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' as distinct are theistic, and [[Dvaita Vedanta]] and later [[Nyaya]] schools illustrate this premise.<ref>Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), ''Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics'', Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-0815336082}}, page xvii;<br>K. K. Chakrabarti (1999), ''Classical Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791441718}} pages 279–292</ref> Those that consider ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' as same are monist or pantheistic, and [[Advaita Vedanta]], later [[Samkhya]]<ref>John C. Plott et al (2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, pages 60-62</ref> and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] schools illustrate this metaphysical premise.<ref>[[Julius Lipner]] (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 22–23</ref><ref>Laurie Patton (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 45–50</ref><ref>J. D. Fowler (1996), ''Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices'', Sussex University Press, {{ISBN|978-1898723608}}, pages 135–137</ref> In schools that equate ''Brahman'' with ''Atman'', ''Brahman'' is the sole, ultimate reality.<ref name="acdas"/> The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of Self within each human being, with the Self of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality ''Brahman''.<ref>William Indich (2000), ''Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812512}}, page 5</ref><ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99;<br>[http://www.vedantaadvaita.org/AdvaitaVedanta_3.htm Advaita Vedanta - A Bird's Eye View], Topic III: ''Philosophy of Advaita Vedanta'', D. Krishna Ayyar (2011)</ref>