Apartheid

== Homeland system ==
{{Main|Bantustan}}
[[File:South_Africa_%26_South_West_Africa_Bantustans_Map.svg|right|thumb|400px|Map of the 20 bantustans in South Africa and South West Africa.]]

Under the homeland system, the government attempted to divide South Africa and South West Africa into a number of separate states, each of which was supposed to develop into a separate nation-state for a different ethnic group.<ref name=autogenerated1>p. 15</ref>

Territorial separation was hardly a new institution. There were, for example, the "reserves" created under the British government in the nineteenth century. Under apartheid, 13 percent of the land was reserved for black homelands, a small amount relative to its total population, and generally in economically unproductive areas of the country. The [[Tomlinson Commission]] of 1954 justified apartheid and the homeland system, but stated that additional land ought to be given to the homelands, a recommendation that was not carried out.<ref>Evans, Ivan. Bureaucracy and Race: Native Administration in South Africa. Berkeley: U of California, 1997. N. pag. Print.</ref>

When Verwoerd became Prime Minister in 1958, the policy of "separate development" came into being, with the homeland structure as one of its cornerstones. Verwoerd came to believe in the granting of independence to these homelands. The government justified its plans on the ostensible basis that "(the) government's policy is, therefore, not a policy of discrimination on the grounds of race or colour, but a policy of differentiation on the ground of nationhood, of different nations, granting to each self-determination within the borders of their homelands{{snds}}hence this policy of separate development".<ref>Amisi, Baruti, and Simphiwe Nojiyeza. Access to Decent Sanitation in South Africa: The Challenges of Eradicating the Bucket System Baruti Amisi n. pag. Feb. 2008. Web.</ref> Under the homelands system, blacks would no longer be citizens of South Africa, becoming citizens of the independent homelands who worked in South Africa as foreign migrant labourers on temporary work permits. In 1958 the Promotion of Black Self-Government Act was passed, and border industries and the [[Bantu Investment Corporation Act, 1959|Bantu Investment Corporation]] were established to promote economic development and the provision of employment in or near the homelands. Many black South Africans who had never resided in their identified homeland were forcibly removed from the cities to the homelands.

The vision of a South Africa divided into multiple [[Ethnocracy|ethnostates]] appealed to the reform-minded Afrikaner intelligentsia, and it provided a more coherent philosophical and moral framework for the National Party's policies, while also providing a veneer of intellectual respectability to the controversial policy of so-called [[baasskap]].<ref name="sparksNews24Appalled">{{cite news|url=https://www.news24.com/Columnists/AllisterSparks/Verwoerd-and-his-policies-appalled-me-20150512|title=Verwoerd and his policies appalled me|work=News24|access-date=4 June 2018|language=en|archive-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116072439/https://www.news24.com/Columnists/AllisterSparks/Verwoerd-and-his-policies-appalled-me-20150512|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="politicsWebRememberingVerwoerd">{{cite web|url=http://www.politicsweb.co.za/opinion/remembering-verwoerd|title=Remembering Verwoerd – OPINION {{!}} Politicsweb|website=www.politicsweb.co.za|language=en|access-date=4 June 2018|archive-date=19 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619140047/http://www.politicsweb.co.za/opinion/remembering-verwoerd|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="afrikanerDominationNews24">{{cite news|url=https://www.news24.com/Columnists/GuestColumn/afrikaner-domination-died-with-verwoerd-50-years-ago-20160906|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906170422/http://www.news24.com/Columnists/GuestColumn/afrikaner-domination-died-with-verwoerd-50-years-ago-20160906|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 September 2016|title=Afrikaner domination died with Verwoerd 50 years ago|work=News24|access-date=4 June 2018|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Ciskei2.jpg|thumb|left|Rural area in [[Ciskei]], one of the four nominally independent homelands.]]

In total, 20 homelands were allocated to ethnic groups, ten in South Africa proper and ten in South West Africa. Of these 20 homelands, 19 were classified as black, while one, [[Basterland]], was set aside for a sub-group of Coloureds known as [[Basters]], who are closely related to Afrikaners. Four of the homelands were declared independent by the South African government: [[Transkei]] in 1976, [[Bophuthatswana]] in 1977, [[Venda]] in 1979, and [[Ciskei]] in 1981 (known as the TBVC states). Once a homeland was granted its nominal independence, its designated citizens had their South African citizenship revoked and replaced with citizenship in their homeland. These people were then issued passports instead of passbooks. Citizens of the nominally autonomous homelands also had their South African citizenship circumscribed, meaning they were no longer legally considered South African.<ref name="travel">Those who had the money to travel or emigrate were not given full passports; instead, travel documents were issued.</ref> The [[Government of South Africa|South African government]] attempted to draw an equivalence between their view of black citizens of the homelands and the problems which other countries faced through entry of illegal immigrants].

=== International recognition of the Bantustans ===
Bantustans within the borders of South Africa and South West Africa were classified by degree of nominal self-rule: 6 were "non-self-governing", 10 were "self-governing", and 4 were "independent". In theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet sovereign nations. Independent Bantustans (Transkei, Bophutatswana, Venda and Ciskei; also known as the TBVC states) were intended to be fully sovereign. In reality, they had no significant economic infrastructure and with few exceptions encompassed swaths of disconnected territory. This meant all the Bantustans were little more than puppet states controlled by South Africa.

Throughout the existence of the independent Bantustans, South Africa remained the only country to recognise their independence. Nevertheless, internal organisations of many countries, as well as the South African government, lobbied for their recognition. For example, upon the foundation of Transkei, the Swiss-South African Association encouraged the Swiss government to recognise the new state. In 1976, leading up to a United States House of Representatives resolution urging the President to not recognise Transkei, the South African government intensely lobbied lawmakers to oppose the bill.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://kora.matrix.msu.edu/files/50/304/32-130-E84-84-al.sff.document.af000020.pdf |title=A Fine Face for Apartheid |first=Shelly |last=Pitterman |magazine=Southern Africa |date=January–February 1978 |publisher=[[The Africa Fund]] |location=New York |via=kora.matrix.msu.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218200853/http://kora.matrix.msu.edu/files/50/304/32-130-E84-84-al.sff.document.af000020.pdf |archive-date=18 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Each TBVC state extended recognition to the other independent Bantustans while South Africa showed its commitment to the notion of TBVC sovereignty by building embassies in the TBVC capitals.

=== Forced removals {{Anchor|Forced removal}} ===
[[File:Travelling Light 76 F.jpg|thumb|Man subject to forced removal in Mogopa, Western Transvaal, February 1984]]
{{See also|1=Group Areas Act|2=Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act, 1991}}
During the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s, the government implemented a policy of "resettlement", to force people to move to their designated "group areas". Millions of people were forced to relocate. These removals included people relocated due to [[Slum clearance in South Africa|slum clearance]] programmes, labour tenants on white-owned farms, the inhabitants of the so-called "black spots" (black-owned land surrounded by white farms), the families of workers living in townships close to the homelands, and "surplus people" from urban areas, including thousands of people from the Western Cape (which was declared a "Coloured Labour Preference Area")<ref name="clp">{{cite journal | last = Western | first = J. | title = A divided city: Cape Town | journal = [[Political Geography (journal)|Political Geography]] | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 711–716 | doi = 10.1016/S0962-6298(02)00016-1 | date = June 2002 }}</ref> who were moved to the [[Transkei]] and [[Ciskei]] homelands. The best-publicised [[Population transfer|forced removals]] of the 1950s occurred in [[Johannesburg]], when 60,000 people were moved to the new township of [[Soweto]] (an abbreviation for South Western Townships).<ref>{{cite web|title=From the Western Areas to Soweto: forced removals |url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/places/villages/gauteng/soweto/history3.htm |access-date=7 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117170427/http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/places/villages/gauteng/soweto/history3.htm |archive-date=17 January 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="timeSophia">{{cite news |title=Toby Street Blues |newspaper=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=21 February 1955 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,892971,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117190333/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,892971,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 January 2008 }}</ref>

Until 1955, [[Sophiatown]] had been one of the few urban areas where black people were allowed to own land, and was slowly developing into a multiracial slum. As industry in Johannesburg grew, Sophiatown became the home of a rapidly expanding black workforce, as it was convenient and close to town. It had the only swimming pool for black children in Johannesburg.<ref name="Meredith2010">{{cite book|first=Martin|last=Meredith|title=Mandela: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsUXdCxt0WUC&pg=PT95|date=1 April 2010|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-84739-933-5|page=95|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028035900/https://books.google.com/books?id=OsUXdCxt0WUC&pg=PT95|url-status=live}}</ref> As one of the oldest black settlements in Johannesburg, it held an almost symbolic importance for the 50,000 black people it contained. Despite a vigorous ANC protest campaign and worldwide publicity, the removal of Sophiatown began on 9 February 1955 under the Western Areas Removal Scheme. In the early hours, heavily armed police forced residents out of their homes and loaded their belongings onto government trucks. The residents were taken to a large tract of land {{convert|19|km}} from the city centre, known as [[Meadowlands, Gauteng|Meadowlands]], which the government had purchased in 1953. Meadowlands became part of a new planned black city called [[Soweto]]. Sophiatown was destroyed by bulldozers, and a new white suburb named [[Triomf]] (Triumph) was built in its place. This pattern of forced removal and destruction was to repeat itself over the next few years, and was not limited to black South Africans alone. Forced removals from areas like [[Cato Manor]] (Mkhumbane) in [[Durban]], and [[District Six]] in [[Cape Town]], where 55,000 Coloured and [[Indian South Africans|Indian people]] were forced to move to new townships on the [[Cape Flats]], were carried out under the [[Group Areas Act]] of 1950. Nearly 600,000 Coloured, Indian and [[Chinese South Africans|Chinese people]] were moved under the Group Areas Act. Some 40,000 whites were also forced to move when land was transferred from "white South Africa" into the black homelands.<ref>{{cite book|title = Music of South Africa|last = Muller|first = Carol|publisher = Routledge|year = 2008}}</ref> In South-West Africa, the apartheid plan that instituted Bantustans was as a result of the so-called Odendaal Plan, a set of proposals from the Odendaal Commission of 1962–1964.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=D'Amato |first1=A.A. |title=The Bantustan Proposals for South-West Africa |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |date=1966 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=177–192 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00013239 |jstor=158943 |s2cid=154050355 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/158943 |access-date=4 June 2021 |archive-date=4 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604000204/https://www.jstor.org/stable/158943 |url-status=live }}</ref>