Anglicanism

==Doctrine==
{{Main|Anglican doctrine}}

==="Catholic and reformed"===

The distinction between Reformed and Catholic, and the coherence of the two, is a matter of debate within the Anglican Communion. The [[Oxford Movement]] of the mid-19th century revived and extended doctrinal, liturgical, and pastoral practices similar to those of Roman Catholicism. This extends beyond the ceremony of [[high church]] services to even more theologically significant territory, such as sacramental theology (see [[Anglican sacraments]]). While [[Anglo-Catholic]] practices, particularly liturgical ones, have become more common within the tradition over the last century, there are also places where practices and beliefs resonate more closely with the evangelical movements of the 1730s (see [[Sydney Anglicanism]]).

===Guiding principles===
[[File:Hooker-Statue.jpeg|thumb|[[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]] (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity]]
For high-church Anglicans, doctrine is neither established by a [[magisterium]], nor derived from the theology of an [[:wikt:eponym|eponymous]] founder (such as [[Calvinism]]), nor summed up in a confession of faith beyond the ecumenical [[creed]]s, such as the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[Book of Concord]]. For them, the earliest Anglican theological documents are its prayer books, which they see as the products of profound theological reflection, compromise, and synthesis. They emphasise the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' as a key expression of Anglican doctrine. The principle of looking to the prayer books as a guide to the parameters of belief and practice is called by the Latin name ''[[lex orandi, lex credendi]]'' ("the law of prayer is the law of belief").

Within the prayer books are the fundamentals of Anglican doctrine: the [[Apostles' Creed|Apostles']] and [[Nicene Creed|Nicene]] creeds, the [[Athanasian Creed]] (now rarely used), the scriptures (via the lectionary), the sacraments, daily prayer, the [[catechism]], and apostolic succession in the context of the historic threefold ministry. For some low-church and evangelical Anglicans, the 16th-century [[English Reformation|Reformed]] Thirty-Nine Articles form the basis of doctrine.

====Distinctives of Anglican belief====
The [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] played a significant role in Anglican doctrine and practice. Following the passing of the 1604 canons, all Anglican clergy had to formally subscribe to the articles. Today, however, the articles are no longer binding,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Thirty-nine Articles |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thirty-nine-Articles |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=29 August 2016 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726050538/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thirty-nine-Articles |url-status=live }}</ref> but are seen as a historical document which has played a significant role in the shaping of Anglican identity. The degree to which each of the articles has remained influential varies.

On the doctrine of [[Justification (theology)|justification]], for example, there is a wide range of beliefs within the Anglican Communion, with some [[Anglo-Catholic]]s arguing for a faith with good works and the sacraments. At the same time, however, some [[evangelical]] Anglicans ascribe to the Reformed emphasis on ''[[sola fide]]'' ("faith alone") in their doctrine of justification (see [[Sydney Anglicanism]]). Still other Anglicans adopt a nuanced view of justification, taking elements from the early [[Church Fathers]], [[Catholicism]], [[Protestantism]], [[liberal Christianity|liberal theology]], and [[latitudinarian]] thought.

Arguably, the most influential of the original articles has been Article VI on the "sufficiency of scripture", which says that "Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation." This article has informed Anglican biblical [[exegesis]] and [[hermeneutics]] since earliest times.

Anglicans look for authority in their "standard divines" (see below). Historically, the most influential of these – apart from Cranmer – has been the 16th-century cleric and theologian [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]], who after 1660 was increasingly portrayed as the founding father of Anglicanism. Hooker's description of Anglican authority as being derived primarily from scripture, informed by reason (the intellect and the experience of God) and tradition (the practices and beliefs of the historical church), has influenced Anglican self-identity and doctrinal reflection perhaps more powerfully than any other formula. The analogy of the "three-legged stool" of [[Bible|scripture]], [[reason]], and [[Sacred Tradition|tradition]] is often incorrectly attributed to Hooker. Rather, Hooker's description is a hierarchy of authority, with scripture as foundational and reason and tradition as vitally important, but secondary, authorities.

Finally, the extension of Anglicanism into non-English cultures, the growing diversity of prayer books, and the increasing interest in ecumenical dialogue have led to further reflection on the parameters of Anglican identity. Many Anglicans look to the [[Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral]] of 1888 as the ''sine qua non'' of communal identity.{{sfn|Sydnor|1980|p=80}} In brief, the quadrilateral's four points are the scriptures as containing all things necessary to salvation; the creeds (specifically, the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds) as the sufficient statement of Christian faith; the dominical sacraments of [[Baptism]] and [[Holy Communion]]; and the historic [[Episcopalian church governance#Anglican Communion|episcopate]].{{sfn|Sydnor|1980|p=80}}

===Divines{{anchor|Anglican_divines}}===
{{See also|Paul Amyraut|John Donne|George Herbert|William Laud}}
[[File:Thomas Cranmer by Gerlach Flicke.jpg|thumb|[[Thomas Cranmer]], author of the first two editions of the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'']]
Within the Anglican tradition, "divines" are clergy of the [[Church of England]] whose theological writings have been considered standards for faith, doctrine, worship, and spirituality, and whose influence has permeated the Anglican Communion in varying degrees through the years.{{sfn|Booty|1998|pp=175–176, 197}} While there is no authoritative list of these Anglican divines, there are some whose names would likely be found on most lists – those who are commemorated in [[Calendar of saints (Anglican)|lesser feasts]] of the Anglican churches and those whose works are frequently [[anthology|anthologised]].{{sfn|Booty|1998|pp=163, 174}}

The corpus produced by Anglican divines is diverse. What they have in common is a commitment to the faith as conveyed by scripture and the ''Book of Common Prayer'', thus regarding prayer and theology in a manner akin to that of the [[Apostolic Fathers]].{{sfn|Booty|1998|p=163}} On the whole, Anglican divines view the ''[[via media]]'' of Anglicanism not as a compromise, but as "a positive position, witnessing to the universality of God and God's kingdom working through the fallible, earthly ''ecclesia Anglicana''".{{sfn|Booty|1998|pp=164}}

These theologians regard scripture as interpreted through tradition and reason as authoritative in matters concerning salvation. Reason and tradition, indeed, are extant in and presupposed by scripture, thus implying co-operation between God and humanity, God and nature, and between the sacred and secular. Faith is thus regarded as [[incarnation]]al and authority as dispersed.

Amongst the early Anglican divines of the 16th and 17th centuries, the names of [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[John Jewel]], [[Matthew Parker]], [[Richard Hooker]], [[Lancelot Andrewes]], and [[Jeremy Taylor]] predominate. The influential character of Hooker's ''[[Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity]]'' cannot be overestimated. Published in 1593 and subsequently, Hooker's eight-volume work is primarily a treatise on church-state relations, but it deals comprehensively with issues of [[biblical interpretation]], [[soteriology]], ethics, and [[sanctification]]. Throughout the work, Hooker makes clear that theology involves prayer and is concerned with ultimate issues and that theology is relevant to the social mission of the church.

The 17th century saw the rise of two important movements in Anglicanism: [[Cambridge Platonists|Cambridge Platonism]], with its mystical understanding of reason as the "candle of the Lord", and the [[evangelical revival]], with its emphasis on the personal experience of the [[Holy Spirit]]. The Cambridge Platonist movement evolved into a school called [[Latitudinarianism]], which emphasised reason as the barometer of discernment and took a stance of indifference towards doctrinal and ecclesiological differences.

The evangelical revival, influenced by such figures as [[John Wesley]] and [[Charles Simeon]], re-emphasised the importance of [[Sola fide|justification through faith]] and the consequent importance of personal conversion. Some in this movement, such as Wesley and [[George Whitefield]], took the message to the United States, influencing the [[First Great Awakening]] and creating an Anglo-American movement called [[Methodism]] that would eventually break away, structurally, from the Anglican churches after the American Revolution.

By the 19th century, there was a renewed interest in pre-Reformation English religious thought and practice. Theologians such as [[John Keble]], [[Edward Bouverie Pusey]], and [[John Henry Newman]] had widespread influence in the realm of polemics, homiletics and theological and devotional works, not least because they largely repudiated the old high-church tradition and replaced it with a dynamic appeal to antiquity which looked beyond the Reformers and Anglican formularies.{{sfn|Nockles|1994|pp=7–8, 113, 125, 127}} Their work is largely credited with the development of the [[Oxford Movement]], which sought to reassert Catholic identity and practice in Anglicanism.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kiefer |first=James E. |title=The Oxford Tractarians, Renewers of the Church |url=http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/249.html |work=Biographical Sketches of Memorable Christians of the Past |publisher=Society of Archbishop Justus |access-date=27 September 2017 |archive-date=5 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205061354/http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/249.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In contrast to this movement, clergy such as the Bishop of Liverpool, [[J. C. Ryle]], sought to uphold the distinctly Reformed identity of the Church of England. He was not a servant of the status quo, but argued for a lively religion which emphasised grace, holy and charitable living, and the plain use of the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'' (interpreted in a partisan evangelical way){{efn|The 19th-century evangelical interpretation of the Prayerbook, now less frequent, included celebration of Holy Communion while the priest was standing at the northern ''short side'' of the communion table. This misinterpretation was caused by the fact that the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'' retained two contradictory rubrics. From 1552 a rubric was retained that the priest should stand at the northern ''long side'' of a communion table standing east-west in the choir (the communicants sitting in the choir stalls by the northern and southern walls). From 1559 was retained the rubric that 'the chancels shall remain as they have done in times past', originally intended to protect the mediaeval interior of church buildings from Calvinist vandalism, and – mainly neglected during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I – it was not consented to generally before the reign of Charles II. During the reign of Elizabeth I, only the [[chapel royal|chapels royal]] retained the mediaeval position of the communion table, standing permanently north-south at the east wall of the choir. The parish of St. Giles Cripplegate, London, began to apply the Chapels Royal arrangement of the communion table in 1599 or 1605, and from there it began to spread. Archbishop [[William Laud]]'s attempt to make it mandatory in the 1630s backfired, with well known consequences. By the reign of Charles II, however, it was applied generally, and the original intention of the ''northward position rubric'' became unintelligible, and easily misunderstood.}} without additional rituals. [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], through such works as ''The Kingdom of Christ'', played a pivotal role in inaugurating another movement, [[Christian socialism]]. In this, Maurice transformed Hooker's emphasis on the [[incarnation]]al nature of Anglican spirituality to an imperative for social justice.

In the 19th century, Anglican biblical scholarship began to assume a distinct character, represented by the so-called "Cambridge triumvirate" of [[Joseph Lightfoot]], [[Fenton John Anthony Hort|F. J. A. Hort]], and [[Brooke Foss Westcott]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Treloar |first1=Geoffrey R. |title=The Cambridge Triumvirate and the Acceptance of New Testament Higher Criticism in Britain 1850–1900 |journal=[[Journal of Anglican Studies]] |date=2006 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=13–32 |doi=10.1177/1740355306064516|s2cid=171035765 }}</ref> Their orientation is best summed up by Westcott's observation that "Life which Christ is and which Christ communicates, the life which fills our whole beings as we realise its capacities, is active fellowship with God."{{sfn|Booty|1998|p=183}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Westcott |first1=Brooke Foss |title=Lessons from Work |date=1901 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |page=290 |edition=Reprinted |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/lessonsfromwork00westgoog/page/n306/mode/1up|chapter=Life}}</ref>

The earlier part of the 20th century is marked by [[Charles Gore]], with his emphasis on [[natural revelation]], and [[William Temple (bishop)|William Temple]]'s focus on Christianity and society, while, from outside England, [[Robert Leighton (bishop)|Robert Leighton]], Archbishop of Glasgow, and several clergy from the United States have been suggested, such as [[William Porcher DuBose]], [[John Henry Hobart]] (1775–1830, Bishop of New York 1816–30), [[William Meade]], [[Phillips Brooks]], and [[Charles Brent]].{{sfn|Booty|1998|pp=164, 171–172}}

===Churchmanship===
[[File:Tridentine mass.jpg|thumb|An eastward-facing [[Solemn High Mass]], a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] liturgical phenomenon which reemerged in Anglicanism following the [[Oxford Movement|Catholic Revival]] of the 19th century]]
''[[Churchmanship]]'' can be defined as the manifestation of theology in the realms of liturgy, piety and, to some extent, spirituality. Anglican diversity in this respect has tended to reflect the diversity in the tradition's Reformed and Catholic identity. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses and provinces may identify more closely with one or the other, or some mixture of the two.

The range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century, when some clergy were disciplined and even imprisoned on charges of introducing illegal ritual while, at the same time, others were criticised for engaging in public worship services with ministers of Reformed churches. Resistance to the growing acceptance and restoration of traditional Catholic ceremonial by the mainstream of Anglicanism ultimately led to the formation of small breakaway churches such as the [[Free Church of England]] in England (1844) and the [[Reformed Episcopal Church]] in North America (1873).<ref>[http://www.fcofe.org.uk/about_the_free_church_of_england.htm Accessed 9 November 2010.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119122715/http://www.fcofe.org.uk/about_the_free_church_of_england.htm |date=19 November 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rechurch.org/about.html|title=About the Reformed Episcopal Church|website=rechurch.org|access-date=17 March 2018|archive-date=19 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319084802/http://rechurch.org/about.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Anglo-Catholic]] (and some broad-church) Anglicans celebrate public liturgy in ways that understand worship to be something very special and of utmost importance. [[Vestments]] are worn by the clergy, sung settings are often used, and [[incense]] may be used. Nowadays, in most Anglican churches, the Eucharist is celebrated in a manner similar to the usage of [[Roman Catholics]] and some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], though, in many churches, more traditional, "pre–Vatican II" models of worship are common (e.g., an "eastward orientation" at the altar). Whilst many Anglo-Catholics derive much of their liturgical practice from that of the pre-Reformation English church, others more closely follow traditional Roman Catholic practices.

The Eucharist may sometimes be celebrated in the form known as [[Solemn Mass|High Mass]], with a priest, deacon and [[subdeacon]] (usually actually a layman) dressed in traditional vestments, with incense and [[Altar bell|sanctus bells]] and prayers adapted from the [[Roman Missal]] or other sources by the celebrant. Such churches may also have forms of [[eucharistic adoration]] such as [[Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament]]. In terms of personal piety, some Anglicans may recite the [[Anglican Rosary|Rosary]] and [[Angelus]], be involved in a devotional society dedicated to "Our Lady" (the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]]) and seek the intercession of the saints.

In recent decades, the prayer books of several provinces have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern [[Conciliarism]] (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and [[Oriental Orthodox]] elements in their liturgies, including introduction of the [[Trisagion]] and deletion of the [[filioque]] clause from the [[Nicene Creed]].

For their part, those [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] (and some broad-church) Anglicans who emphasise the more Protestant aspects of the Church stress the Reformation theme of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]] by grace through faith. They emphasise the two dominical sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist, viewing the other five as "lesser rites". Some evangelical Anglicans may even tend to take the inerrancy of scripture literally, adopting the view of Article VI that it contains all things necessary to salvation in an explicit sense. Worship in churches influenced by these principles tends to be significantly less elaborate, with greater emphasis on the [[Liturgy of the Word]] (the reading of the scriptures, the sermon, and the intercessory prayers).

The Order for Holy Communion may be celebrated bi-weekly or monthly (in preference to the [[daily office]]s), by priests attired in [[choir habit]], or more regular clothes, rather than Eucharistic vestments. Ceremony may be in keeping with their view of the provisions of the 17th-century Puritans – being a [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] interpretation of the [[Ornaments Rubric]] – no candles, no incense, no bells, and a minimum of manual actions by the presiding celebrant (such as touching the elements at the [[Words of Institution]]).

In the early 21st century, there has been a growth of [[Charismatic Movement|charismatic]] worship among Anglicans. Both Anglo-Catholics and evangelicals have been affected by this movement such that it is not uncommon to find typically charismatic postures, music, and other themes evident during the services of otherwise Anglo-Catholic or evangelical parishes.

The spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels. Many Anglicans locate themselves somewhere in the spectrum of the broad-church tradition and consider themselves an amalgam of evangelical and Catholic. Such Anglicans stress that Anglicanism is the ''[[via media]]'' (middle way) between the two major strains of Western Christianity and that Anglicanism is like a "bridge" between the two strains.

===Sacramental doctrine and practice===
{{Main|Anglican sacraments}}
In accord with its prevailing self-identity as a ''[[via media]]'' or "middle path" of [[Western Christianity]], Anglican sacramental theology expresses elements in keeping with its status as being both a church in the [[Catholicity|Catholic]] tradition as well as a [[English Reformation|Reformed]] church. With respect to sacramental theology, the Catholic heritage is perhaps most strongly asserted in the importance Anglicanism places on the [[sacrament]]s as a means of [[Divine grace|grace]], [[sanctification]], and [[salvation]], as expressed in the church's [[liturgy]] and doctrine.

Of the seven sacraments, all Anglicans recognise [[Baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]] as being directly instituted by Christ. The other five – [[Confession (sacrament)|Confession/Absolution]], [[Christian view of marriage|Matrimony]], [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]], [[Holy Orders]] (also called Ordination), and [[Anointing of the Sick]] (also called Unction) – are regarded variously as full sacraments by [[Anglo-Catholic]]s and many [[high church]] and some [[broad church|broad-church]] Anglicans, but merely as "sacramental rites" by other broad-church and [[low church|low-church]] Anglicans, especially [[evangelicalism|evangelical]]s associated with [[Reform (Anglican)|Reform UK]] and the [[Anglican Diocese of Sydney|Diocese of Sydney]].

====Eucharistic theology====
{{Main|Anglican eucharistic theology}}
Anglican eucharistic theology is divergent in practice, reflecting the essential comprehensiveness of the tradition. A few [[low church|low-church]] Anglicans take a strictly memorialist ([[Zwingli]]an) view of the sacrament. In other words, they see Holy Communion as a memorial to Christ's suffering, and participation in the Eucharist as both a re-enactment of the Last Supper and a foreshadowing of the heavenly banquet – the fulfilment of the eucharistic promise.

Other low-church Anglicans believe in the [[real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]] but deny that the presence of Christ is carnal or is necessarily localised in the bread and wine. Despite explicit criticism in the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]], many high-church or Anglo-Catholic Anglicans hold, more or less, the Catholic view of the real presence as expressed in the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]], seeing the Eucharist as a liturgical representation of Christ's atoning sacrifice with the elements actually transformed into Christ's body and blood.

The majority of Anglicans, however, have in common a belief in the real presence, defined in one way or another. To that extent, they are in the company of the continental reformer [[Martin Luther]] and Calvin rather than [[Ulrich Zwingli]]. The Catechism of the American BCP of 1976 repeats the standard Anglican view ("The outward and visible sign in the Eucharist is the bread and wine"..."The inward and spiritual grace in the Holy Communion is the Body and Blood of Christ given to his people, and received by faith") without further definition. It should be remembered that Anglicanism has no official doctrine on this matter, believing it is wiser to leave the Presence a mystery. The faithful can believe privately whatever explanation they favour, be it transubstantiation, consubstantiation, receptionism, or virtualism (the two{{clarify|reason=which two of the four?|date=January 2021}} most congenial to Anglicans for centuries until the Oxford Movement), each of which espouses belief in the real presence in one way or another, or memorialism, which has never been an option with Anglicans.

A famous Anglican aphorism regarding Christ's presence in the sacrament, commonly misattributed to [[Elizabeth I|Queen Elizabeth I]], is first found in print in a poem by [[John Donne]]:{{sfn|May|2007|pp=54–55}}

<blockquote><poem>
He was the word that spake it,
He took the bread and brake it:
And what that word did make it,
I do believe and take it.{{sfn|May|2007|pp=55, 66}}</poem></blockquote>

An Anglican position on the eucharistic sacrifice ("Sacrifice of the Mass") was expressed in the response ''[[Saepius officio]]'' of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s papal encyclical ''[[Apostolicae curae]]'': viz. that the Prayer Book contained a strong sacrificial theology. Later revisions of the Prayer Book influenced by the Scottish Canon of 1764 first adopted by the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1789 made this assertion quite evident: "we do make and celebrate before thy Divine Majesty with these thy holy gifts, which we now ''offer'' unto thee, the memorial thy Son has commanded us to make", which is repeated in the 1929 English BCP and included in such words or others such as "present" or "show forth" in subsequent revisions.

Anglican and Roman Catholic representatives declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the ''Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine'' by the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation (1971)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_1971_eucharistic-doctrine_en.html|title=Eucharistic Doctrine, 1971|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=15 March 2020|archive-date=16 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416083433/http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_1971_eucharistic-doctrine_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and the Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement (1979). The final response (1991) to these documents by the Vatican made it plain that it did not consider the degree of agreement reached to be satisfactory.