Philosophy

=== Western ===
{{main|Western philosophy}}

[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|alt=Bust of Aristotle|[[Aristotle]] was a major figure in ancient philosophy and developed a comprehensive system of thought including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and natural science.{{sfn|Shields|2022|loc=Lead Section}}]]

Western philosophy originated in [[Ancient Greece]] in the 6th century BCE with the [[pre-Socratics]]. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the [[cosmos]] as a whole.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=89zzlbsG1KgC&pg=PT13 Introduction]}} |2={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. Presocratic Thought}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC&pg=PA9 9–11]}} }}</ref> The philosophy following them was shaped by [[Socrates]] (469–399 BCE), [[Plato]] (427–347 BCE), and [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like [[Ethics|how people should act]], [[Epistemology|how to arrive at knowledge]], and what the [[Metaphysics|nature of reality]] and [[mind]] is.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. Aristotle}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Socrates, Plato, Aristotle}} }}</ref> The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, [[Epicureanism]], [[Stoicism]], [[Skepticism]], and [[Neoplatonism]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Long|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3s6DILqP1MwC&pg=PA1 1]}} |2={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=Chapter 10}} |3={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=6. Post-Hellenistic Thought}} }}</ref> The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate [[Christian doctrine]]s.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5HoJ77q1TN8C&pg=PA9 9]}} |2={{harvnb|Lagerlund|2020|p=v}} |3={{harvnb|Marenbon|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |4={{harvnb|MacDonald|Kretzmann|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref><ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Part II: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2019|pp=3–4}} }}</ref>

The [[Renaissance]] period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular [[Platonism]]. [[Renaissance humanism|Humanism]] also emerged in this period.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|pp=1, 3}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2022|pp=155–157}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Renaissance}} |4={{harvnb|Chambre|Maurer|Stroll|McLellan|2023|loc=Renaissance Philosophy}} }}</ref> The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the [[Rationalism|role of reason]] and [[Empiricism|sensory experience]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Anstey|Vanzo|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2LytEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 236–237]}} }}</ref> Many of these innovations were used in the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment movement]] to challenge traditional authorities.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Kenny|2006|pp=90–92}} }}</ref> Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by [[German idealism]] and [[Marxism]].{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of [[formal logic]], the focus on the [[Linguistic turn|role of language]] as well as [[pragmatism]], and movements in [[continental philosophy]] like phenomenology, [[existentialism]], and [[post-structuralism]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} |2={{harvnb|Livingston|2017|loc=[https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/twentieth-century-philosophy/v-1/sections/analytic-and-continental-philosophy 6. 'Analytic' and 'Continental' Philosophy]}} |3={{harvnb|Silverman|Welton|1988|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pHd0VtVBn1UC&pg=PA5 5–6]}} }}</ref> The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at [[academic institution]]s.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} There was also a noticeable growth in the number of [[female philosophers]], but they still remained underrepresented.{{sfn|Waithe|1995|pp=xix–xxiii}}