North Africa

==History==
{{Main|History of North Africa}}
{{See|African empires#North Africa|List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa#North Africa}}

===Prehistory===
{{Main|Prehistoric North Africa}}
{{See|History of North Africa#Prehistory}}
Due to the [[recent African origin of modern humans]], the history of Prehistoric North Africa is important to the understanding of pre-hominid and early modern human history in Africa.
Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than [[East Africa]] served as the exit point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the [[recent African origin of modern humans|Out of Africa]] migration.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.331.6013.20|pmid=21212332|title=Was North Africa the Launch Pad for Modern Human Migrations?|journal=Science|volume=331|issue=6013|pages=20–23|date=7 January 2011|last1=Balter|first1=Michael|bibcode=2011Sci...331...20B}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | url= | doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.002| pmid=21601174| pmc=3113241| title=A Revised Root for the Human y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa| journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics| volume=88| issue=6| pages=814–818| year=2011| last1=Cruciani| first1=Fulvio| last2=Trombetta| first2=Beniamino| last3=Massaia| first3=Andrea| last4=Destro-Bisol| first4=Giovanni| last5=Sellitto| first5=Daniele| last6=Scozzari| first6=Rosaria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0700747104|pmid=17372199|pmc=1828706|title=Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early Homo sapiens|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=104|issue=15|pages=6128–6133|date=10 April 2007|last1=Hublin|first1=Jean-Jacques|last2=Boutakiout|first2=Mohamed|last3=Eggins|first3=Stephen|last4=Grün|first4=Rainer|last5=Reid|first5=Donald J.|last6=Tafforeau|first6=Paul|last7=Smith|first7=Tanya M.|bibcode=2007PNAS..104.6128S|doi-access=free}}</ref> 

The earliest inhabitants of central North Africa have left behind significant remains: early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa, for example, were found in Ain el Hanech, near [[Saïda, Algeria|Saïda]] ({{Circa|200,000 BCE}}); in fact, more recent investigations have found signs of [[Oldowan]] technology there, and indicate a date of up to 1.8 million BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gi.ulpgc.es/tarha/Ain_Hanech.pdf|title=Sahnouni 1998|website=Gi.ulpc.es|access-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510140017/http://www.gi.ulpgc.es/tarha/Ain_Hanech.pdf|archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref>

Recent finds in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco have been found to contain some of the oldest ''Homo sapiens'' remains; This suggests that, rather than arising only in [[East Africa]] around 200,000 years ago, early ''Homo sapiens'' may already have been present across the length of Africa 100,000 years earlier. According to study author Jean-Jacques Hublin, "The idea is that early ''Homo sapiens'' dispersed around the continent and elements of human modernity appeared in different places, and so different parts of Africa contributed to the emergence of what we call modern humans today."<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|title=Eritrea's human rights record comes under fire at United Nations|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/25/eritrea-human-rights-united-nations|access-date=30 October 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=25 October 2013}}</ref> Early humans may have comprised a large, interbreeding population dispersed across Africa whose spread was facilitated by a wetter climate that created a "green Sahara", around 330,000 to 300,000 years ago. The rise of modern humans may thus have taken place on a continental scale rather than being confined to a particular corner of Africa.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.356.6342.993|title=World's oldest ''Homo sapiens'' fossils found in Morocco|last=Gibbons|first=Ann|work=[[Science (magazine)|Science]]|date=7 June 2017|doi=10.1126/science.356.6342.993 |access-date=8 June 2017}}</ref> 
In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 [[CT scan]]s, of a virtual [[Human skull|skull shape]] of the last common human ancestor to [[modern human]]s/''H. sapiens'', representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago through a merging of populations in [[East Africa|East]] and [[Southern Africa]].<ref name="NYT-20190910">{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Zimmer |title=Scientists Find the Skull of Humanity's Ancestor — on a Computer – By comparing fossils and CT scans, researchers say they have reconstructed the skull of the last common forebear of modern humans. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/10/science/human-ancestor-skull-computer.html |date=10 September 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=10 September 2019 }}</ref><ref name="NAT-20190910">{{cite journal |last1=Mounier |first1=Aurélien |last2=Lahr |first2=Marta |title=Deciphering African late middle Pleistocene hominin diversity and the origin of our species |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |year=2019 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=3406 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-11213-w |pmid=31506422 |pmc=6736881 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.3406M }}</ref>
 
The cave paintings found at Tassili n'Ajjer, north of Tamanrasset, Algeria, and at other locations depict vibrant and vivid scenes of everyday life in central North Africa during the Neolithic Subpluvial period (about 8000 to 4000 BCE). Some parts of North Africa began to participate in the Neolithic revolution in the 6th millennium BCE, just before the rapid desertification of the Sahara around 3500 B.C. largely due to a tilt in the Earth's orbit.<ref name="sciencedaily.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/green-sahara-african-humid-periods-paced-by-82884405/|title=Green Sahara: African humid periods paced by Earth's orbital changes|date=12 July 1999|website=Science Daily|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191042/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990712080500.htm|archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref> It was during this period that domesticated plants and animals were introduced in the region, spreading from the north and east to the southwest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuper|first=Rudolf|title=Climate-Controlled Holocene Occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa's Evolution|journal=Science|year=2006|volume=313|issue=5788|pages=803–708|doi=10.1126/science.1130989|pmid=16857900|bibcode=2006Sci...313..803K|s2cid=20003260|doi-access=free}}</ref> There has been an inferred connection between areas of rapid drying and the introduction of livestock in which the natural (orbital) aridification was amplified by the spread of shrubs and open land due to grazing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wright|first=David|title=Humans as Agents in the Termination of the African Humid Period|journal=Frontiers in Earth Science|year=2017|volume=5|pages=https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2017.00004|doi=10.3389/feart.2017.00004|bibcode=2017FrEaS...5....4W|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nevertheless, changes in northern Africa's ecology after 3500 BCE provided the backdrop for the formation of dynastic civilizations and the construction of monumental architecture such as the [[Giza pyramid complex|Pyramids of Giza]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gatto|first=Maria|title=Holocene supra-regional environmental changes as trigger for major socio-cultural processes in northeastern Africa and the Sahara|journal=African Archaeological Review|year=2015|volume=32|issue=2|pages=301–333|doi=10.1007/s10437-015-9191-x|s2cid=126834892}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late [[Pleistocene]] era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gatto |first1=Maria C. |title=The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological Record |url=https://www.academia.edu/545582}}</ref>Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wengrow |first1=David |last2=Dee |first2=Michael |last3=Foster |first3=Sarah |last4=Stevenson |first4=Alice |last5=Ramsey |first5=Christopher Bronk |title=Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: a prehistoric perspective on Egypt's place in Africa |journal=Antiquity |date=March 2014 |volume=88 |issue=339 |pages=95–111 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00050249 |s2cid=49229774 |language=en |issn=0003-598X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Stuart Tyson |title=Gift of the Nile? Climate Change, the Origins of Egyptian Civilization and Its Interactions within Northeast Africa |journal=Across the Mediterranean – Along the Nile: Studies in Egyptology, Nubiology and Late Antiquity Dedicated to László Török. Budapest |date=1 January 2018 |pages=325–345 |url=https://www.academia.edu/43275151}}</ref>

When Egypt entered the Bronze Age,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935413-e-35|title=Egypt and the Mediterranean in the Bronze Age: The Archaeological Evidence|last=Bader|first=Bettina|year=2015|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.35|isbn=978-0-19-993541-3}}</ref> the Maghreb remained focused on small-scale subsistence in small, highly mobile groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=Graema|title=Agriculture, Pastoralism, and Mediterranean Landscapes in Prehistory|journal=The Archaeology of Mediterranean Prehistory|year=2005|pages=46–76|doi=10.1002/9780470773536.ch3|isbn=978-0-470-77353-6}}</ref> Some [[Phoenicia]]n and [[Greek colonies]] were established along the Mediterranean coast during the 7th century BCE.

===Antiquity and ancient Rome===
{{Main|History of North Africa#Classical period}}
[[File:Septimius Severus Glyptothek Munich 357.jpg|thumb|[[Septimius Severus]], the first [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor native to North Africa, born in [[Leptis Magna]] in present-day [[Libya]]]]
The most notable nations of antiquity in western North Africa are [[Carthage]], [[Numidia]] and [[Mauretania]]. The Phoenicians colonized much of North Africa including Carthage and parts of present-day Morocco (including [[Chellah]], [[Essaouira]] and [[Volubilis]]<ref>{{cite web|author=C. Michael Hogan |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=14906 |title=Volubilis – Ancient Village or Settlement in Morocco |publisher=The Megalithic Portal |date=18 December 2007 |access-date=23 May 2010}}</ref>). The Carthaginians were of [[Phoenicia]]n origin, with the Roman myth of their origin being that [[Dido]], a Phoenician princess, was granted land by a local ruler based on how much land she could cover with a piece of cowhide. She ingeniously devised a method to extend the cowhide to a high proportion, thus gaining a large territory. She was also rejected by the [[Troy|Trojan]] prince [[Aeneas]] according to [[Virgil]], thus creating a historical enmity between Carthage and [[Rome]], as Aeneas would eventually lay the foundations for Rome. [[Ancient Carthage]] was a commercial power and had a strong navy, but relied on mercenaries for land soldiers. The Carthaginians developed an empire in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Malta]], [[Sardinia]], [[Corsica]] and northwest [[Sicily]], the latter being the cause of [[First Punic War]] with the [[Roman Republic|Romans]].

Over a hundred years and more, all Carthaginian territory was eventually conquered by the Romans, resulting in the Carthaginian North African territories becoming the [[Africa (Roman province) |Roman province of Africa]] in 146 B.C.<ref>{{cite book|title =The Punic Wars 264–146 BC|first= Nigel|last= Bagnall|publisher = Osprey|date = 2002|isbn =9781472895530}}</ref> This led to tension and eventually [[war|conflict]] between [[Numidia]] and Rome. The Numidian wars are notable for launching the careers of both [[Gaius Marius]], and [[Sulla]], and stretching the constitutional burden of the Roman republic as Marius required a professional army, something previously contrary to Roman values, to overcome the talented [[military]] leader [[Jugurtha]].<ref>[[Sallust]], ''De Bello Iugurthino''</ref> Kingdom of [[Mauretania]] remained independent until being annexed to the Roman Empire by Emperor [[Claudius]] in 42 AD.

North Africa remained a part of the Roman Empire, producing notable citizens, including [[Augustine of Hippo]], until incompetent leadership from Roman commanders in the early fifth century allowed the [[Germanic peoples]], the [[Vandals]], to cross the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], whereupon they overcame the fickle Roman defense. The loss of North Africa is considered a pinnacle point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire as Africa had previously been an important grain province that maintained Roman prosperity despite the barbarian incursions, and the wealth required to create new armies. The issue of regaining North Africa became paramount to the Western Empire, but was frustrated by Vandal victories. The focus of Roman energy had to be on the emerging threat of the [[Huns]]. In 468 AD, the Romans made one last serious attempt to invade North Africa but were repelled. This perhaps marks the point of terminal decline for the [[Western Roman Empire]]. 

The last Roman emperor was deposed in 476 by the [[Herules|Heruli]] general [[Odoacer]]. [[Trade route]]s between [[Europe]] and North Africa remained intact until the coming of Islam. Some Berbers were members of the [[Early African Church]] (but evolved their own [[Donatism|Donatist doctrine]]),<ref>{{Cite web|website=BBC World Service |series= The Story of Africa |title=The Berbers|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page66.shtml|access-date=2023-02-08|publisher=BBC}}</ref> some were [[Berber Jews]], and some adhered to [[traditional Berber religion]]. [[African pope]] [[Pope Victor I|Victor I]] served during the reign of Roman emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Ottomans and Carthaginians the Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4CfBKvsiWeQC&pg=PA156 | title = The Middle East and North Africa: Pg 156| isbn = 978-1-85743-132-2| author1 = Eur| publisher = Psychology Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=83koAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA118 | title = Sketches of Algeria During the Kabyle War By Hugh Mulleneux Walmsley: Pg 118| last1 = Walmsley| first1 = Hugh Mulleneux| year = 1858}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wqF8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT167 | title = The Kabyle People By Glora M. Wysner| isbn = 978-1-4474-8352-6| last1 = Wysner| first1 = Glora M.| date = 30 January 2013| publisher = Read Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pv80AQAAMAAJ&q=Kabylia | title = The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 1: Pg 568| year = 1990| publisher = Grolier| isbn = 978-0-7172-0121-1}}</ref> 

The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GI5CAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA45 | journal= The Art-Journal|location = London|volume= 4|page= 45| year = 1865|title = Kabyle Pottery|last = Bodichon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JU5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93 | title = The Barbary Coast By Henry Martyn Field: Pg 93| last1 = Field| first1 = Henry Martyn| year = 1893}}</ref>

===Arab conquest to modern times===
{{Main|History of North Africa#Arrival of Islam}}
{{Further|Decolonisation of Africa|Postcolonial Africa#North Africa|Neocolonialism}}
{{See also|Status of forces agreement}}
[[File:Kairouan Mosque Courtyard.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Tunisia]], founded by Arab general [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] in 670, one of the oldest and most notable mosques in North Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Küng|first=Hans|author-link=Hans Küng|title=Tracing The Way: Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sm0BfUKwct0C&pg=PA248|year=2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-9423-8}}, page 248</ref>]]
The [[early Muslim conquests]] included North Africa by 640. By 700, most of North Africa had come under Muslim rule. Indigenous Berbers subsequently started to form their own polities in response in places such as [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] and [[Sijilmasa]]. In the eleventh century, a reformist movement made up of members that called themselves the [[Almoravid dynasty]] expanded south into [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].

North Africa's populous and flourishing civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the [[Banu Sulaym]] and [[Banu Hilal]]. Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.<ref>[http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm Populations Crises and Population Cycles] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527170154/http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm |date=27 May 2013 }}, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell, Galton Institute, March 1996</ref>

[[File:Cedid Atlas (Africa) 1803.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|1803 [[Cedid Atlas]], showing the Ottoman held regions of North Africa]]
After the [[Middle Ages]] much of the area was loosely under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The [[Spanish Empire]] conquered several coastal cities between the 16th and 18th centuries. After the 19th century, the imperial and colonial presence of [[French colonial empire|France]], [[British Empire|the United Kingdom]], [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] and [[Italy]] left the entirety of the region under one form of European occupation.

In [[World War II]] from 1940 to 1943 the area was the setting for the [[North African Campaign]]. During the 1950s and 1960s all of the North African states gained independence. There remains a dispute over [[Western Sahara]] between [[Morocco]] and the [[Algeria]]n-backed [[Polisario Front]].

The wider protest movement known as the [[Arab Spring]] began with revolutions in [[Tunisian Revolution|Tunisia]] and [[Egyptian revolution of 2011|Egypt]] which ultimately led to the overthrow of their governments, as well as [[First Libyan Civil War|civil war]] in Libya. Large protests also occurred in Algeria and Morocco to a lesser extent. Many hundreds died in the uprisings.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/02/201122164254698620.html |title=In search of an African revolution |first=Azad |last=Essa |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=21 February 2011}}</ref>