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Do not fill this in! ==Geography and environment== {{Main|Geography of New Zealand|Environment of New Zealand}} [[File:New Zealand 23 October 2002.jpg|right|thumbnail|upright|The snow-capped [[Southern Alps]] dominate the South Island, while the North Island's [[Northland Peninsula]] stretches towards the subtropics.|alt=Islands of New Zealand as seen from satellite]] New Zealand is located near the centre of the [[water hemisphere]] and is made up of two main islands and more than 700 [[List of islands of New Zealand|smaller islands]].<ref name="Walrond1">{{cite book|last=Walrond|first=Carl|title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]|date=8 February 2005|chapter=Natural environment – Geography and geology|chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/page-1|access-date=26 December 2020|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221014857/https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/page-1|url-status=live}}</ref> The two main islands (the [[North Island]], or {{lang|mi|Te Ika-a-Māui}}, and the [[South Island]], or {{lang|mi|Te Waipounamu}}) are separated by [[Cook Strait]], {{convert|22|km|mi}} wide at its narrowest point.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=The Sea Floor |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/cook-strait/1 |access-date=13 January 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120164724/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/cook-strait/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are [[Stewart Island]] (across the [[Foveaux Strait]]), [[Chatham Island]], [[Great Barrier Island]] (in the [[Hauraki Gulf]]),<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/hauraki/default.asp |title=Hauraki Gulf islands |publisher=[[Auckland City Council]] |access-date=13 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101225020855/http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/hauraki/default.asp |archive-date=25 December 2010}}</ref> [[D'Urville Island (New Zealand)|D'Urville Island]] (in the [[Marlborough Sounds]])<ref>{{cite web |last=Hindmarsh |date=2006 |url= http://www.historic.org.nz/en/Publications/HeritageNZMagazine/HeritageNz2006/HNZ06-DiscoveringDUrville.aspx |title=Discovering D'Urville |publisher=Heritage New Zealand |access-date=13 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511071150/http://www.historic.org.nz/en/Publications/HeritageNZMagazine/HeritageNz2006/HNZ06-DiscoveringDUrville.aspx |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> and [[Waiheke Island]] (about {{convert|22|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from central Auckland).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.auckland-coastguard.org.nz/Information/Distance+Tables.html |title=Distance tables |publisher=Auckland Coastguard |access-date=2 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110123074649/http://www.auckland-coastguard.org.nz/Information/Distance%2BTables.html |archive-date=23 January 2011}}</ref> New Zealand is long and narrow—over {{convert|1600|km|mi}} along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of {{convert|400|km|mi}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Heinemann New Zealand atlas |publisher=[[Heinemann (publisher)|Heinemann Publishers]] |first=D. W. |last=McKenzie |date=1987|isbn=0-7900-0187-X}}</ref>—with about {{convert|15000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} of coastline<ref name="CIA" /> and a total land area of {{convert|268000|km2|-2}}.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/PASFull/pasfull.nsf/84bf91b1a7b5d7204c256809000460a4/4c2567ef00247c6acc25697a00043f15?OpenDocument|title=Geography |publisher=[[Statistics New Zealand]] |access-date=21 December 2009 |date=1999|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100522061011/http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/PASFull/pasfull.nsf/84bf91b1a7b5d7204c256809000460a4/4c2567ef00247c6acc25697a00043f15?OpenDocument |archive-date=22 May 2010}}</ref> Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its [[Exclusive economic zone of New Zealand|exclusive economic zone]] is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.<ref>{{cite book |title=Offshore Options: Managing Environmental Effects in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone |publisher=[[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)|Ministry for the Environment]] |date=2005 |location=Wellington |url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/offshore-options-jun05.pdf |isbn=0-478-25916-6 |access-date=23 June 2017 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411222516/http://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/offshore-options-jun05.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | width = 200 | image1 = Mt Cook, NZ.jpg | caption1 = [[Aoraki / Mount Cook]] is the highest point in New Zealand, at 3,724 metres. | alt1 = A large mountain with a lake in the foreground | image2 = New Zealand moutain ranges.jpg | caption2 = The Southern Alps stretch for 500 kilometres down the South Island. | alt2 = Snow-capped mountain range | total_width = }} The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the [[Southern Alps]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The rise and fall of the Southern Alps |first=Glen |last= Coates |publisher=[[Canterbury University Press]] |date=2002|page=15|isbn=0-908812-93-0}}</ref> There are 18 peaks over {{convert|3000|m|ft}}, the highest of which is [[Aoraki / Mount Cook|{{lang|mi|nocat=yes|italic=no|Aoraki}} / Mount Cook]] at {{convert|3724|m|ft}}.{{sfn|Garden|2005|p=52}} [[Fiordland]]'s steep mountains and deep [[List of fiords of New Zealand|fiords]] record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island.<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Grant |chapter=Southland places – Fiordland's coast |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/southland-places/10 |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-date=28 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628160023/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/southland-places/10 |url-status=live }}</ref> The North Island is less mountainous but is [[Volcanology of New Zealand|marked by volcanism]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Central North Island volcanoes |publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]] |access-date=14 January 2011 |url= http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/national-parks/tongariro/features/central-north-island-volcanoes/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101229222806/http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/national-parks/tongariro/features/central-north-island-volcanoes/ |archive-date=29 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The highly active [[Taupō Volcanic Zone]] has formed a large [[North Island Volcanic Plateau|volcanic plateau]], punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, [[Mount Ruapehu]] ({{convert|2797|m}}). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, [[Lake Taupō]],<ref name=Walrond1 /> nestled in the [[caldera]] of one of the world's most active [[supervolcano]]es.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.geonet.org.nz/volcano/activity/taupo/about.html |title=Taupō |publisher=[[GNS Science]] |access-date=2 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110324025353/http://www.geonet.org.nz/volcano/activity/taupo/about.html |archive-date=24 March 2011}}</ref> New Zealand is prone to [[List of earthquakes in New Zealand|earthquakes]] and [[Volcanism of New Zealand|volcanic]] eruptions. The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]] and [[Indo-Australian Plate]]s.<ref name="Keith 2009">{{cite book |first1=Keith |last1=Lewis |first2=Scott |last2=Nodder |first3=Lionel |last3=Carter |chapter=Sea floor geology – Active plate boundaries |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sea-floor-geology/2 |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120044935/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sea-floor-geology/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> New Zealand is part of [[Zealandia]], a [[microcontinent]] nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the [[Gondwana]]n supercontinent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wallis |first1=G. P. |last2=Trewick |first2=S. A. |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x |title=New Zealand phylogeography: Evolution on a small continent |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=18 |issue=17 |pages=3548–3580 |date=2009 |pmid= 19674312 |s2cid=22049973 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2009MolEc..18.3548W }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mortimer |first1=Nick |last2=Campbell |first2=Hamish |title=Zealandia: Our Continent Revealed |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-14-357156-8 |location=Auckland |publisher=Penguin Books |oclc=887230882}}</ref> About 25 million years ago, a shift in [[plate tectonic]] movements began to [[Kaikoura orogeny|contort and crumple]] the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by [[Continental collision|compression of the crust]] beside the [[Alpine Fault]]. Elsewhere, the plate boundary involves the [[subduction]] of one plate under the other, producing the [[Puysegur Trench]] to the south, the [[Hikurangi Trench]] east of the North Island, and the [[Kermadec Trench|Kermadec]] and [[Tonga Trench]]es<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Dawn |last1=Wright |first2=Sherman |last2=Bloomer |first3=Christopher |last3=MacLeod |first4=Brian |last4=Taylor |first5=Andrew |last5=Goodliffe |title=Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: A Map Series |date=2000 |journal=Marine Geophysical Researches |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=489–512 |doi=10.1023/A:1026514914220 |bibcode=2000MarGR..21..489W |s2cid=6072675 }}</ref> further north.<ref name="Keith 2009" /> New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a region known as [[Australasia]].<ref name=NZOD>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Australasia |encyclopedia=New Zealand Oxford Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2005 |isbn=9780195584516 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001|editor1-last=Deverson |editor1-first=Tony |editor2-last=Kennedy |editor2-first=Graeme}}</ref> It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called [[Polynesia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hobbs |first1=Joseph J. |title=Fundamentals of World Regional Geography |date=2016 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9781305854956 |page=367 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0rUaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA367}}</ref> [[Oceania]] is a wider region encompassing the [[Australia (continent)|Australian continent]], New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the [[continent|seven-continent]] model.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hillstrom |first1=Kevin |last2=Collier Hillstrom |first2=Laurie |title=Australia, Oceania, and Antarctica: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues |volume=3 |date=2003 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=9781576076941 |page=25 |quote=... defined here as the continent nation of Australia, New Zealand, and twenty-two other island countries and territories sprinkled over more than 40 million square kilometres of the South Pacific.}}</ref> {{clear}}<!----Galleries or clusters of images are generally discouraged in county summary articles as they cause undue weight to one particular section and may cause accessibility problems because images are fragmented ---> <gallery mode="packed" caption="Landscapes of New Zealand"> File:NZ Landscape.jpg|Rural scene near [[Queenstown, New Zealand|Queenstown]] File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 16.jpg|[[Hokitika Gorge]], [[West Coast, New Zealand|West Coast]] File:Emerald Lakes, New Zealand.jpg|The Emerald Lakes, [[Mount Tongariro]] File:Lake Gunn.jpg|[[Lake Gunn]] File:Pencarrow Head, Wellington, New Zealand from Santa Regina, 24 Feb. 2007.jpg|[[Pencarrow Head]], Wellington </gallery> ===Climate=== {{main|Climate of New Zealand}} [[File:Christchurch Botanic Gardens in autumn.jpg|thumb|right|Autumn in [[Christchurch]] ([[Christchurch Botanic Gardens|Botanic Gardens]] pictured)]] New Zealand's climate is predominantly<!--with some variations noted--> temperate [[Oceanic climate|maritime]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from {{convert|10|°C|0|abbr=on}} in the south to {{convert|16|°C|0|abbr=on}} in the north.<ref name="Mullan2009">{{cite book |first1=Brett |last1=Mullan |first2=Andrew |last2=Tait |first3=Craig |last3=Thompson |chapter=Climate – New Zealand's climate |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/climate/1 |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120065000/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/climate/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Historical [[maxima and minima]] are {{convert|42.4|°C|2|abbr=on}} in [[Rangiora]], [[Canterbury Region|Canterbury]] and {{convert|-25.6|°C|2|abbr=on}} in [[Ranfurly, New Zealand|Ranfurly]], [[Otago]].<ref name="niwa">{{cite web |url=http://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate/extreme |title=Summary of New Zealand climate extremes |publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]] |date=2004 |access-date=30 April 2010 |archive-date=25 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925113200/https://niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate/extreme |url-status=live }}</ref> Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the [[West Coast, New Zealand|West Coast]] of the South Island to [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] in [[Central Otago]] and the [[Mackenzie Basin]] of inland Canterbury and [[subtropical]] in [[Northland Peninsula|Northland]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Carl |last=Walrond |chapter=Natural environment – Climate |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120165411/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Orange |first=Claudia |author-link=Claudia Orange |chapter=Northland region |date=1 May 2015 |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/northland-region/ |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=11 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811035809/https://teara.govt.nz/en/northland-region |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the seven largest cities, [[Christchurch]] is the driest, receiving on average only {{convert|618|mm|in}} of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.niwa.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44268/rain.xls |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110503221956/http://www.niwa.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44268/rain.xls |archive-date=3 May 2011|title=Mean monthly rainfall |publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]] |format=[[Microsoft Excel file format|XLS]] |access-date=4 February 2011}}</ref> Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.niwascience.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44655/sunshine.xls |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081015102420/http://www.niwascience.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44655/sunshine.xls |archive-date=15 October 2008 |title=Mean monthly sunshine hours |publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]] |format=[[Microsoft Excel file format|XLS]] |access-date=4 February 2011}}</ref> The general snow season is early June until early October, though [[cold snap]]s can occur outside this season.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand climate and weather |url=http://www.newzealand.com/int/feature/new-zealand-climate-and-weather/ |publisher=Tourism New Zealand |access-date=13 November 2016 |archive-date=20 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020182725/http://www.newzealand.com/int/feature/new-zealand-climate-and-weather/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.<ref name="Mullan2009" /> <!---As prose text is preferred overly detailed data charts and diagrams such as weather data boxes, population charts and past elections results etc should be reserved for main sub articles on the topic as per WP:DETAIL.---> {|class="wikitable collapsible sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+Average daily temperatures and rainfall for selected towns and cities of New Zealand<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate |title=Climate data and activities |publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]] |access-date=11 February 2016 |date=28 February 2007 |archive-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107073139/https://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate%0a |url-status=live }}</ref> |- !Location !January high<br />°C (°F) !January low<br />°C (°F) !July high<br />°C (°F) !July low<br />°C (°F) !Annual rainfall<br />mm (in) |- |[[Auckland]] ||{{Convert|23|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|15|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|15|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|8|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|1212|mm|in|abbr=values}} |- |[[Wellington]] ||{{Convert|20|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|14|C|F|0|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|11|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|6|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|1207|mm|in|abbr=values}} |- |[[Hokitika]] |{{Convert|20|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|12|C|F|0|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|12|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|3|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|2901|mm|in|abbr=values}} |- |[[Christchurch]]||{{Convert|23|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|12|C|F|0|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|11|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|2|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|618|mm|in|abbr=values}} |- |[[Alexandra, New Zealand|Alexandra]] |{{Convert|25|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|11|C|F|0|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|8|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|-2|C|F|abbr=values}} |{{Convert|359|mm|in|abbr=values}} |} ===Biodiversity=== {{Main|Biodiversity of New Zealand}} [[File:TeTuatahianui.jpg|thumb|upright|The endemic flightless [[kiwi (bird)|kiwi]] is a [[National symbols of New Zealand|national icon]].|alt=Kiwi amongst sticks]] New Zealand's [[geographic isolation]] for 80 million years<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cooper |first1=R. |last2=Millener |first2=P. |title=The New Zealand biota: Historical background and new research |date=1993 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=429–33 |doi=10.1016/0169-5347(93)90004-9 |pmid= 21236222}}</ref> and island [[biogeography]] has influenced evolution of the country's species of [[fauna|animals]], [[fungus|fungi]] and [[flora|plants]]. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trewick |first1=S. A. |last2=Morgan-Richards |first2=M. |date=2014 |title=New Zealand Wild Life |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=9780143568896}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lindsey |first1=Terence |last2=Morris |first2=Rod |title=Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |date=2000 |page=14 |isbn=978-1-86950-300-0}}</ref> The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McDowall|first=R. M.|date=2008|title=Process and pattern in the biogeography of New Zealand – a global microcosm?|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01830.x|journal=Journal of Biogeography|language=en|volume=35|issue=2|pages=197–212|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01830.x|bibcode=2008JBiog..35..197M|s2cid=83921062|issn=1365-2699|access-date=6 April 2021|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818090359/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01830.x|url-status=live}}</ref> About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous [[vascular plant]]s are [[Endemism|endemic]], covering 1,944 species across 65 [[genus|genera]].<ref name="FAQ">{{cite web |date=May 2010 |url=http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/page.asp?help_faqs_NZ_plants |title=Frequently asked questions about New Zealand plants |publisher=[[New Zealand Plant Conservation Network]] |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-date=8 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908012124/http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/page.asp?help_faqs_NZ_plants |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="NZPCN 2006">{{cite book |last1=De Lange |first1=Peter James |last2=Sawyer |first2=John William David |last3=Rolfe |first3=Jeremy |title=New Zealand Indigenous Vascular Plant Checklist |date=2006 |publisher=[[New Zealand Plant Conservation Network]] |isbn=0-473-11306-6}}</ref> The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand<ref name="FAQ" /> and 40% of these are endemic.<ref>{{cite book |first=Maggy |last=Wassilieff |chapter=Lichens – Lichens in New Zealand |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/lichens/2 |access-date=16 January 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117000741/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/lichens/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent [[podocarp]]s, or by [[Nothofagus|southern beech]] in cooler climates.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Mixed Broadleaf Podocarp and Kauri Forest |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/forests-indigenous/4 |access-date=15 January 2011 |date=April 2010 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117113026/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/forests-indigenous/4 |url-status=live }}</ref> The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are [[Tussock grasslands of New Zealand|tussock]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Mark |chapter=Grasslands – Tussock grasslands |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/grasslands/1 |access-date=17 January 2010 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117000341/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/grasslands/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only [[tree line|high alpine]], wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.<ref>{{cite web |title=Commentary on Forest Policy in the Asia-Pacific Region (A Review for Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand and Western Samoa) |date=1997 |publisher=Forestry Department |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7730e/w7730e09.htm#new%20zealand |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207235120/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7730e/w7730e09.htm#new%20zealand |url-status=live }}</ref> Massive [[Deforestation in New Zealand|deforestation]] occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McGlone |first=M. S. |date=1989 |title=The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes |journal=New Zealand Journal of Ecology |volume=12(S) |pages=115–129 |url= http://nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol12_s_115.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140717220413/http://nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol12_s_115.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2014}}</ref> Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Taylor |first1=R. |last2=Smith |first2=I. |title=The state of New Zealand's environment 1997 |date=1997 |publisher=[[New Zealand Ministry for the Environment]] |location=Wellington |url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/ser/ser1997/index.html |access-date=6 March 2011 |archive-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122070627/http://mfe.govt.nz/publications/ser/ser1997/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|thumb|left|The giant [[Haast's eagle]] died out when humans hunted its main prey, the [[moa]], to extinction.|alt=An artist's rendition of a Haast's eagle attacking two moa]] The forests were dominated by [[Birds of New Zealand|birds]], and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the [[Kiwi (bird)|kiwi]], [[kākāpō]], [[weka]] and [[takahē]] evolving [[flightless bird|flightlessness]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.terranature.org/flightlessbirds.htm |title=New Zealand ecology: Flightless birds |work=TerraNature |access-date=17 January 2011 |archive-date=8 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408130705/http://www.terranature.org/flightlessBirds.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of [[Polynesian rat|rats]], ferrets and other mammals led to the [[List of New Zealand animals extinct in the Holocene|extinction]] of many bird species, including [[Megafauna|large birds]] like the [[moa]] and [[Haast's eagle]].<ref name="Holdaway2009">{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Holdaway |chapter=Extinctions – New Zealand extinctions since human arrival |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/extinctions/4 |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120064405/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/extinctions/4 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=January 2005 |title=Huge eagles 'dominated NZ skies' |first=Alex |last=Kirby |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4138147.stm |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404073729/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4138147.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles ([[tuatara]], [[skink]]s and [[List of geckos of New Zealand|geckos]]), [[Leiopelmatidae|frogs]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/reptiles-and-frogs |publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]] |title=Reptiles and frogs |access-date=25 June 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150129135945/http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/reptiles-and-frogs/ |archive-date=29 January 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> such as the protected endangered [[Hamilton's Frog]], [[Spiders of New Zealand|spiders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pollard |first1=Simon |chapter=Spiders and other arachnids |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/spiders-and-other-arachnids |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=25 June 2017 |date=September 2007 |archive-date=6 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606043630/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/spiders-and-other-arachnids |url-status=live }}</ref> insects ({{lang|mi|[[wētā]]|italics=no}}),<ref>{{cite web |title=Wētā |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/invertebrates/weta/ |publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]] |access-date=25 June 2017 |archive-date=12 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612074126/http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/invertebrates/weta/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and snails.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paddy |last=Ryan |chapter=Snails and slugs – Flax snails, giant snails and veined slugs |title=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/snails-and-slugs/2 |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117014939/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/snails-and-slugs/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called [[living fossil]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrera-Flores |first1=Jorge A. |last2=Stubbs |first2=Thomas L. |last3=Benton |first3=Michael J. |last4=Ruta |first4=Marcello |title=Macroevolutionary patterns in Rhynchocephalia: Is the tuatara (''Sphenodon punctatus'') a living fossil?|journal=Palaeontology |date=May 2017 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1111/pala.12284 |bibcode=2017Palgy..60..319H |doi-access=free}}</ref> Three species of bats ([[New Zealand greater short-tailed bat|one]] since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from [[Saint Bathans mammal|a unique, mouse-sized land mammal]] at least 16 million years old.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2006/nzmammal.html |title=Tiny Bones Rewrite Textbooks, first New Zealand land mammal fossil |publisher=University of New South Wales |date=31 May 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070531085218/http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2006/nzmammal.html |archive-date=31 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Worthy |first1=Trevor H. |last2=Tennyson |first2=Alan J. D. |last3=Archer |first3=Michael |last4=Musser |first4=Anne M. |last5=Hand |first5=Suzanne J. |last6=Jones |first6=Craig |last7=Douglas |first7=Barry J. |last8=McNamara |first8=James A. |last9=Beck |first9=Robin M. D. |title=Miocene mammal reveals a Mesozoic ghost lineage on insular New Zealand, southwest Pacific |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=103 |issue=51 |pages=19419–23 |date=2006 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0605684103|bibcode=2006PNAS..10319419W |pmid=17159151 |pmc=1697831|doi-access=free }}</ref> Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world's [[cetacea]]ns (whales, dolphins, and [[porpoise]]s) and large numbers of [[fur seal]]s reported in New Zealand waters.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/marine-mammals/ |publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]] |title=Marine Mammals |access-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110308103617/http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/marine-mammals/ |archive-date=8 March 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/sea-and-shore-birds/ |title=Sea and shore birds |publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]] |access-date=7 March 2011 |archive-date=2 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802022849/http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/sea-and-shore-birds/ |url-status=live }}</ref> More [[List of birds of New Zealand#Penguins|penguin]] species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/penguins/ |title=Penguins |publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]] |access-date=7 March 2011 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915163419/http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/penguins/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.<ref name="Holdaway2009" /> However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering and ecological [[island restoration|restoration of islands]] and other [[Protected areas of New Zealand|protected areas]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Carl |last=Jones |chapter=Reptiles and Amphibians |editor1-first=Martin |editor1-last=Perrow |editor2-last=Davy |editor2-first=Anthony |title=Handbook of Ecological Restoration: Principles of Restoration|volume=2 |page=362 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=0-521-79128-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Towns |first1=D. |last2=Ballantine |first2=W. |title=Conservation and restoration of New Zealand Island ecosystems |date=1993 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=452–7 |doi=10.1016/0169-5347(93)90009-E |pmid=21236227}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Island restoration: Exploring the past, anticipating the future |first=Mark |last=Rauzon |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=35 |pages=97–107 |date=2008 |url=http://marineornithology.org/PDF/35_2/35_2_97-107.pdf |access-date=17 January 2011 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606022129/http://marineornithology.org/PDF/35_2/35_2_97-107.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |chapter=New Zealand as an Archipelago: An International Perspective |editor1-first=D. |editor1-last=Towns |editor2-first=C. |editor2-last=Daugherty |editor3-first=I. |editor3-last=Atkinson |date=1990 |title=Ecological Restoration of New Zealand Islands |series="Conservation Sciences Publications" series |volume=Z<!--Yes, zed not two.--> |publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]] |location=Wellington |pages=3–8 |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/EcologicalRestorationNZIslands.pdf |via=Doc.Govt.nz |access-date=26 November 2013 |archive-date=11 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111044707/http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/EcologicalRestorationNZIslands.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Clear}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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