Metaphysics Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! === Universals === {{main|Universal (metaphysics)}} Universals are general entities, encompassing both [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] and [[Relations (philosophy)|relations]], that express what particulars are like and how they resemble one another. They are repeatable, meaning that they are not limited to a unique existent but can be instantiated by different particulars at the same time. For example, the particulars [[Nelson Mandela]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]] instantiate the universal ''humanity'', similar to how a strawberry and a ruby instantiate the universal ''red''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998a|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Cowling|2019|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=17–19}} }}</ref> A topic discussed since ancient philosophy, the [[problem of universals]] consists in the challenge of characterizing the ontological status of universals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 1c. The Problem of Universals}} | {{harvnb|Rodriguez-Pereyra|2000|pp=255–256}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=17–19}} }}</ref> Realists argue that universals are real, mind-independent entities that exist in addition to particulars. According to [[Theory of forms|Platonic realists]], universals exist also independently of particulars, which implies that the universal ''red'' would continue to exist even if there were no red things. A more [[Aristotelianism#Problem of universals|moderate form of realism]], inspired by Aristotle, states that universals depend on particulars, meaning that they are only real if they are instantiated. [[Nominalism|Nominalists]] reject the idea that universals exist in either form. For them, the world is composed exclusively of particulars. The position of [[Conceptualism|conceptualists]] constitutes a middle ground: they state that universals exist, but only as [[concept]]s in the mind used to order experience by classifying entities.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Versions of Realism, § 3. Versions of Anti-Realism}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998a|loc=§ 4. Nominalism and Realism}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=17–19, 45}} }}</ref> [[Natural kind|Natural]] and social kinds are often understood as special types of universals. Entities belonging to the same natural kind share certain fundamental features characteristic of the structure of the natural world. In this regard, natural kinds are not an artificially made-up classification but are discovered,{{efn|The classified entities do not have to occur naturally and can encompass man-made products, such as synthetic chemical substances.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brzović|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref>}} usually by the natural sciences, and include kinds like [[electrons]], [[H2O|{{chem2|H2O}}]], and tigers. [[Scientific realism|Scientific realists]] and anti-realists are in disagreement about whether natural kinds exist.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brzović|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Metaphysics of Natural Kinds}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=Lead Section, § 1.2 Natural Kind Realism}} | {{harvnb|Liston|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Social kinds are basic concepts used in the social sciences, such as [[Race (human categorization)|race]], [[gender]], [[money]], and [[disability]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ásta|2017|pp=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315768571-27/social-kinds-%C3%A1sta 290–291]}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=§ 2.4 Natural Kinds and Social Science}} }}</ref> They are studied by [[Social metaphysics|social metaphysics]] and group entities based on similarities they share from the perspective of certain practices, conventions, and institutions. They are often characterized as useful social constructions that, while not purely fictional, fail to reflect the fundamental structure of mind-independent reality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=259–263}} | {{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=185–186}} }}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page