First Council of Nicaea

== Constantine's role ==

=== Before Nicaea ===
In the first place, Constantine legalized Christianity. During the first three centuries, the Roman authorities persecuted Christianity. The [[Diocletianic Persecution]] of 303-313 was the most severe persecution of Christians up to that point in history. Diocletian's first edict commanded churches and holy sites razed to the ground, sacred articles burned, and believers jailed. However, in 313, the Western Roman Emperor Constantine (306–337) legalized Christianity through the Edict of Milan. He granted Christians "the right of open and free observance of their worship."

“In 324 the Emperor Constantine … (who recently) assumed control of the whole empire, took an interest in the dispute. Constantine wrote to Alexander and Arius telling them to stop quarrelling about what seemed to him to be such a small matter.”<ref>Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 17-18</ref> Constantine wrote:<blockquote>“For as long as you continue to contend about these small and very insignificant questions, I believe it indeed to be not merely unbecoming, but positively evil, that so large a portion of God’s people which belong to your jurisdiction should be thus divided.”<ref>Davis, Leo Donald. The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology. Vol. 21. Collegeville, Minn: Liturgical Press, 1990. 55</ref></blockquote>Constantine, therefore, attempted to intervene even before he understood what this dispute was about. “It initially took the efforts of bishops like Ossius and Alexander of Alexandria to persuade him that anything significant was at issue in Alexandria.”<ref>Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 87-88</ref>

A few months before the Council of Nicaea, “early in 325,” an “anti-Arian Council”<ref>Hanson RPC, page 131</ref> was held in Antioch,<ref>Hanson RPC, page 149</ref> consisting mainly of those who sympathized with Alexander.<ref>Hanson RPC, page 130</ref> “In normal circumstances the Metropolitan of the area in which the Council met would have presided … But Constantine's representative, Ossius, took precedence … over Eustathius.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 155</ref> Ossius was “the Emperor's representative”<ref>Hanson, 154</ref> and Constantine’s “agent.”<ref>Hanson, 190</ref> He was “Constantine's chief adviser and agent in matters concerning the Christian church.”<ref>Hanson, 130</ref> This implies that the meeting took place with the approval of the emperor, which means that, even before Nicaea, "Constantine had taken Alexander's part"<ref name=":1"/> in his dispute with Arius.

=== Calling the council ===
Constantine’s letter failed to unite the warring factions. Consequently. In the year 325, “Constantine himself summoned the bishops”<ref>Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 18</ref> to end this dispute. The council was not called by a church official and nobody asked Constantine to call this meeting. It was his initiative. “It was then certainly Constantine who convoked the Council of Nicaea.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 153-4</ref> “Religious partisanship has in the past led some scholars to suggest that Silvester, bishop of Rome, convoked the Council of Nicaea, but modern Roman Catholic scholars honourably dismiss this idea.”<ref name=":0"/>

As stated above, Nicaea was the first 'general' or 'ecumenical' council of the church. It was the Roman Emperor Constantine who introduced this concept to the church:<blockquote>“The procedures of a council modelled on methods of Roman governance would have been familiar to Constantine, and we can assume that he saw it as the natural means to achieve consensus within the Church.”<ref>Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 87</ref></blockquote>Furthermore, without the assistance of the emperor, the church was unable to call a general council. Only the emperor could call a general council. “Even Damasus [a later bishop of Rome] would have admitted that he could not call a general council on his own authority.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 855</ref> “Everybody recognised the right of an Emperor to call a council, or even to veto or quash its being called.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 849-50</ref>

As his letter to Arius and Alexander shows, Constantine did not call the Nicene Council because he was concerned about right doctrine. “Constantine himself of course neither knew nor cared anything about the matter in dispute.”<ref>McGiffert A.C. A History of Christian Thought, 1954, Vol. 1, p. 258</ref> Rather, “the Council of Nicea was first and foremost an attempt by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great to keep his empire from splitting.”<ref>Pavao, Paul. Decoding Nicea (p. 3). Kindle Edition.</ref> “Constantine himself had become sole emperor only in 324 (after having ruled the western half since 310–12), and he seems to have promoted Christianity as a unifying religion '''for the empire'''.”<ref>Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 87</ref> “Constantine's attitude reflects deeply embedded Roman attitudes about the social function of religion.”<ref>Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 88</ref>

Constantine summoned the bishops of all provinces to [[Nicaea]], a place reasonably [[History of early Christianity|accessible to many delegates]].

Constantine gave the participating bishops free travel to and from their [[episcopal see]]s to the Council, as well as lodging.

=== Presiding officer ===
“The evidence weighs strongly in favour of the view that Ossius … presided at Nicaea.”<ref name=":0">Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 154</ref> “In normal circumstances the Metropolitan of the area in which the Council met would have presided, and in this case it would have been Eusebius of Nicomedia.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 155</ref> Ossius was “Constantine's chief adviser and agent in matters concerning the Christian church.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 130</ref> Ossius presided “as the Emperor's representative”<ref name=":0" /> and as Constantine’s “agent.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 190</ref> “Ossius … represented the policy of Constantine”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 170</ref>

=== Constantine's entrance ===
"Resplendent in purple and gold, Constantine made a ceremonial entrance at the opening of the Council, probably in early June, but respectfully seated the bishops ahead of himself."<ref name="Carroll 1987 11" /> As Eusebius describes, Constantine "himself proceeded through the midst of the assembly, like some heavenly messenger of God, clothed in raiment which glittered as it were with rays of light, reflecting the glowing radiance of a purple robe, and adorned with the brilliant splendor of gold and precious stones."<ref>{{harvnb|''Vita Constantini''|loc=Book 3, Chapter 10}}</ref>

=== Condemnation of Arianism ===
“It became evident very early on that the condemnation of Arius was practically inevitable” (RW, 68). The Nicene Creed “was constructed as a deliberately anti-Arian document.” (RH, 164) “All the more obnoxious doctrines of Arius and his followers are struck at in N in the most impressive way.” (RH, 165)

In spite of [https://revelationbyjesuschrist.com/arius-why-important/#supp the support that Arius enjoyed], only Arius and two of his friends refused to sign, for which they were excommunicated."<ref>Bernard Lohse, A Short History of Christian Doctrine, 1966, p51-53</ref> “In older narratives of the fourth century it was reasonably easy to understand why the Nicene creed was agreed with little dissent: only the few ‘heretics’ would refuse such a clear acknowledgement of the Church's constant faith. Without this older narrative, matters are more complex.”<ref>Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 88</ref>

At the Council of Antioch a few months before Nicaea, the leader of the Eusebians (Eusebius of Caesarea) was provisionally excommunicated. The 'Eusebians' are the larger group that opposed the theology of Alexander and that include Arius and his direct supporters. See - [https://revelationbyjesuschrist.com/lewis-ayres-nicaea-and-its-legacy/#p2.3 The Eusebians] The anti-Arian nature of the Council at Antioch and the excommunication of Eusebius show that, already before Nicaea, "Constantine had taken Alexander's part.”<ref name=":1">Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004, page 89</ref> At Nicaea, “this imperial pressure coupled with the role of his advisers in broadly supporting the agenda of Alexander must have been a powerful force.”<ref name=":1" />

=== Homoousios ===
At the time, the term homoousios (same substance) was the most controversial term in the Nicene Creed. Most delegates at the Council had considerable reservations about the term because, before Nicaea, that term was only preferred by Sabellians, the Bible never says anything about God’s substance (ousia), the term was not part of the standard Christian language at the time, but was “borrowed from the pagan philosophy of the day.” (RH, 846) 

Constantine’s domination of the Nicene Council, therefore, is particularly revealed by the fact that he was able to force the inclusion of the word homoousios. “’Homoousios’ and ‘from the essence of the Father’ were added to the creed by Constantine himself, bearing witness to the extent of his influence at the council.”<ref>Jörg Ulrich. Nicaea and the West. ''Vigiliae Christianae'' 51, no. 1 (1997): 10-24. 15.</ref> Constantine "pressed for its inclusion."<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 211</ref> “Overawed by the emperor, the bishops, with two exceptions only, signed the creed, many of them much against their inclination.”<ref>Britannica, 1971 edition, Vol. 6, “Constantine,” p. 386</ref>

“Constantine took part in the Council of Nicaea and ensured that it reached the kind of conclusion which he thought best.”<ref>Hanson RPC, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381. 1988, page 850</ref> The emperor was present as an overseer and presider but did not cast any official vote. Constantine organized the Council along the lines of the [[Roman Senate]].