Ancient Rome

===Caesar and the First Triumvirate===
[[File:Landing of the Romans on the Coast of Kent.jpg|thumb|Landing of the Romans in [[Kent]], 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near [[Deal, Kent|Deal]]. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the [[English Channel]] to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|invasion]].]]

In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups, ''[[populares]]'' (who hoped for the support of the people) and ''[[optimates]]'' (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the [[tribune of the plebs]]) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the [[Catiline|Catilinarian conspiracy]]—a resounding failure since the consul [[Marcus Tullius Cicero]] quickly arrested and executed the main leaders.

[[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (anglicised as Pompey), to whom he married [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|his daughter]]. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the [[First Triumvirate]] ("three men"). Caesar's daughter died in childbirth in 54 BC, and in 53&nbsp;BC, Crassus invaded [[Parthia]] and was killed in the [[Battle of Carrhae]]; the Triumvirate disintegrated. Caesar [[Gallic Wars|conquered Gaul]], obtained immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He became a threat to Pompey and was loathed by many ''optimates''. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.

To avoid this fate, Caesar [[Caesar's Civil War|crossed the Rubicon]] River and invaded Rome in 49&nbsp;BC. The [[Battle of Pharsalus]] was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, he destroyed all of the ''optimates'' leaders: [[Metellus Scipio]], [[Cato the Younger]], and Pompey's son, [[Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)|Gnaeus Pompeius]]. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48&nbsp;BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome: in five years he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44&nbsp;BC, on the [[Ides of March]] by the ''[[Liberatores]]''.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caesar_julius.shtml Julius Caesar (100–44 BC)]. BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>