Christian theology

===Sacrament===
{{Main|Sacrament}}
A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's ''Concise Dictionary of Religion'', is what [[Roman Catholic]]s believe to be "a [[Rite (Christianity)|rite]] in which [[God]] is uniquely active". [[Augustine of Hippo]] defined a [[Christianity|Christian]] sacrament as "a visible sign of an invisible reality". The Anglican [[Book of Common Prayer]] speaks of them as "an outward and visible sign of an inward and invisible [[Grace (Christianity)|Grace]]." Examples of sacraments would be [[Baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]]."<ref>Hexam's ''Concise Dictionary of Religion'' "Sacrament" obtained at https://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303103908/http://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html |date=3 March 2009 }}</ref> Therefore a sacrament is a [[religious symbol]] or often a rite which conveys [[Grace (Christianity)|divine grace]], [[blessing]], or [[sanctity]] upon the believer who participates in it, or a tangible symbol which represents an intangible reality. As defined above, an example would be [[baptism]] in water, representing (and conveying) the [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] of the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]], the [[Forgiveness of Sins]], and membership into the [[Christian church|Church]]. Anointing with [[holy anointing oil]] is another example which is often synonymous with receiving the [[Holy Spirit]] and salvation. Another way of looking at Sacraments is that they are an external and physical sign of the conferral of [[Sanctifying Grace]].<ref>Catholic Encyclopaedia: "Sacraments" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714192551/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm |date=14 July 2010 }}</ref>

Throughout the Christian faith, views concerning which rites are sacramental, that is conferring [[sanctifying grace]], and what it means for an external act to be sacramental vary widely. Other religious traditions also have what might be called "sacraments" in a sense, though not necessarily according to the Christian meaning of the term.

;General definitions and terms
In the majority of Western Christianity, the generally accepted definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign that conveys spiritual [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] through Christ. Christian [[Church body|churches]], [[religious denomination|denominations]], and [[sect]]s are divided regarding the number and operation of the sacraments. Sacraments are generally held to have been instituted by [[Jesus Christ]], although in some cases this point is debated. They are usually administered by the [[clergy]] to a recipient or recipients, and are generally understood to involve visible and invisible components. The invisible component (manifested inwardly) is understood to be brought about by the action of the Holy Spirit, [[God]]'s grace working in the sacrament's participants, while the visible (or outward) component entails the use of such things as water, oil, and bread and wine that is blessed or [[Consecration|consecrated]]; the laying-on-of-hands; or a particularly significant covenant that is marked by a public benediction (such as with marriage or absolution of sin in the reconciliation of a penitent).

As defined by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], recognised by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox churches]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], (though these two do not categorically define the number), and [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]] and [[Old Catholic Church]].

The Orthodox Churches (Eastern and Oriental) typically do not limit the number of sacraments, viewing all encounters with reality in life as sacramental in some sense, and their acknowledgement of the number of sacraments at seven as an innovation of convenience not found in the [[Church Fathers]]. It came into use, although infrequently, later on from later encounters with the West and its Sacramental Theology.<ref>The Sacraments http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617013804/http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3 |date=17 June 2010 }}</ref> Other denominations and traditions, both in eastern and western Christianity may affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, these include many of the [[Protestant]] denominations and some of the [[Old Believers]] in the Orthodox communion, some of whom reject all sacraments except Baptism.

Since some post-Reformation denominations do not regard clergy as having a classically [[sacerdotalism|sacerdotal]] or priestly function, they avoid the term "sacrament," preferring the terms "sacerdotal function," "ordinance," or "tradition." This belief invests the efficacy of the ''ordinance'' in the obedience and participation of the believer and the witness of the presiding minister and the congregation. This view stems from a highly developed concept of the [[priesthood of all believers]]. In this sense, the believer himself or herself performs the sacerdotal role {{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}.

====Eucharist====
{{Main|Eucharist}}
* [[Transsubstantiation]] (Roman Catholicism)
* [[Anglican Eucharistic theology]]
* [[Sacramental Union]] (Lutheran)

Eucharist, also called Communion, or the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian [[sacrament]] or [[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]], generally considered to be a re-enactment of the [[Last Supper]], the final meal that Jesus [[Christ]] shared with his disciples before his arrest and eventual [[crucifixion]]. The consecration of bread and a cup within the [[Sacrament|rite]] recalls the moment at the Last Supper when [[Jesus]] gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and wine, saying, "This is my [[blood]]".<ref name="EB-purgatory"/><ref>Ignazio Silone, ''Bread and Wine'' (1937).</ref>

There are different interpretations of the significance of the Eucharist, but "there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated."<ref name=EB-Eucharist>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref>

The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the consecrated [[bread]] (leavened or unleavened) and [[wine]] (or, in some [[Protestant]] denominations, unfermented [[grape juice]]) used in the rite,<ref>cf. [http://www.bartleby.com/61/48/E0234800.html The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition 2000] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210031238/http://www.bartleby.com/61/48/E0234800.html |date=10 February 2009 }}</ref> and, in this sense, communicants may speak of "receiving the Eucharist", as well as "celebrating the Eucharist".

''Eucharist'' is from [[Greek language|Greek]] εὐχαριστία (''eucharistia''), meaning thanksgiving. The verb εὐχαριστῶ, the usual word for "to thank" in the [[Septuagint]] and the [[New Testament]], is found in the major texts concerning the Lord's Supper, including the earliest:
{{blockquote|
For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had ''given thanks'', he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me." ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23–24|ESV}})}}

'''The Lord's Supper''' (Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον) derives from 1 Corinthians 11:20–21.
{{blockquote|
When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk.
}}

'''Communion''' is a translation; other translations are "participation", "sharing", "fellowship"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bible.cc/1_corinthians/10-16.htm |title=Parallel Translations |publisher=Bible.cc |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> of the Greek κοινωνία (''koinōnía'') in {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|10:16}}. The [[King James Version]] has {{blockquote|
The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the ''communion'' of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the ''communion'' of the body of Christ?<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|10:16|KJV}}</ref>}}

{{Further|Origin of the Eucharist}}
[[File:Juan de Juanes 002.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''Christ with the Eucharist'' by [[Vicente Juan Masip]], 16th century.]]
The [[Last Supper]] appears in all three [[Synoptic Gospels]]: [[Gospel according to Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel according to Mark|Mark]], and [[Gospel according to Luke|Luke]]; and in the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]],<ref name="EB-purgatory"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Tyndale Bible Dictionary |editor-first1=Philip W. |editor-last1=Comfort |editor-first2=Walter A. |editor-last2=Elwell |year=2001 |isbn=0-8423-7089-7 |title=Lord's Supper, The|last1=Comfort |first1=Philip Wesley }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |editor-first1=F. L. |editor-last1=Cross |editor-first2=E. A. |editor-last2=Livingstone |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |title=Eucharist|last1=Cross |first1=Frank Leslie |last2=Livingstone |first2=Elizabeth A. }}</ref> while the last-named of these also indicates something of how early Christians celebrated what [[Paul the Apostle]] called the Lord's Supper. As well as the Eucharistic dialogue in [[Gospel according to John|John]] chapter 6.

In his [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] ({{circa|54}}–55), [[Paul the Apostle]] gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus's [[Last Supper]]: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.' In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, 'This cup is the [[New Covenant|new covenant]] in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me'."<ref>({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23–25}}</ref>

The synoptic gospels, first Mark,<ref>And as they were eating, he took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to them, and said, "Take; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, and they all drank of it. And he said to them, "This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God." Mark 14:22–25</ref> and then Matthew<ref>Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to the disciples and said, "Take, eat; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, saying, "Drink of it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom." Matthew 26:26–29</ref> and Luke,<ref>They prepared the passover. And when the hour came, he sat at table, and the apostles with him. And he said to them, "I have earnestly desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer; for I tell you I shall not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he said, "Take this, and divide it among yourselves; for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes." And he took bread, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he broke it and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me." And likewise the cup after supper, saying, "This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. ..." Luke 22:13–20</ref> depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper. References to Jesus's body and blood foreshadow his crucifixion, and he identifies them as a new covenant.<ref name="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> In the gospel of John, the account of the Last Supper has no mention of Jesus taking bread and wine and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead it recounts his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him and each other.<ref name="Harris" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Tyndale Bible Dictionary |editor-first1=Philip W. |editor-last1=Comfort |editor-first2=Walter A. |editor-last2=Elwell |year=2001 |isbn=0-8423-7089-7 |title=John, Gospel of|last1=Comfort |first1=Philip Wesley }}</ref>

The expression ''The Lord's Supper'', derived from [[St. Paul]]'s usage in {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:17–34}}, may have originally referred to the [[Agape feast]], the shared [[communal meal]] with which the Eucharist was originally associated.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Lambert | first = J. C. | title = The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia | publisher = [[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]] | year = 1978 | edition = reprint | isbn = 0-8028-8045-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/internationalsta0002unse }}</ref> The Agape feast is mentioned in {{bibleverse||Jude|12|NIV}}. But ''The Lord's Supper'' is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine.

The [[Didache]] (Greek: teaching) is an early Church order, including, among other features, instructions for [[baptism]] and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the early 2nd century,<ref>[[Bruce Metzger]]. The canon of the New Testament. 1997</ref> and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.<ref>"There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9–10, with the earlier one now put in second place." Crossan. The historical Jesus. Citing Riggs, John W. 1984</ref> The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.

Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers and a direct disciple of the [[Apostle John]], mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ",<ref>" ... (t)he eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins, and which in His loving-kindness the Father raised up. ... Let that eucharist alone be considered valid which is under the bishop or him to whom he commits it. ... It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize, or to hold a love-feast. But whatsoever he approves, that also is well-pleasing to God, that everything which you do may be secure and valid." [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 6, 8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225192321/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html |date=25 February 2021 }} "Give heed to keep one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup unto union with His blood. There is one altar, as there is one bishop, together with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants; that whatsoever you do, you may do according unto God."[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html Letter to the Philadelphians, 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129072313/http://earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html |date=29 November 2010 }}</ref> and Justin Martyr speaks of it as more than a meal: "the food over which the prayer of thanksgiving, the word received from Christ, has been said ... is the flesh and blood of this Jesus who became flesh ... and the deacons carry some to those who are absent."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html First Apology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731060254/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html |date=31 July 2017 }}, 65–67</ref>

;Eucharistic theology
{{Main|Eucharistic theology|Eucharistic theologies contrasted}}
Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]].<ref>For example, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglo-Catholics, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the [http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html#c10499 ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709031256/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html |date=9 July 2008 }} of the [[World Council of Churches]]</ref> Some [[Protestants]] prefer to call it an ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]]'', viewing it not as a specific channel of [[Grace (Christianity)|divine grace]] but as an expression of faith and of obedience to [[Christ]].

Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.<ref>"Most Christian traditions also teach that Jesus is present in the Eucharist in some special way, though they disagree about the mode, the locus, and the time of that presence" ([https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist Encyclopædia Britannica Online)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080519053204/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist |date=19 May 2008 }}.</ref> [[Roman Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] teach that the consecrated elements truly become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. [[Transubstantiation]] is the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] explanation given by Roman Catholics as to how this transformation occurs. [[Lutheran]]s believe that the body and blood of Jesus are present "in, with and under" the forms of bread and wine, a concept known as the [[sacramental union]]. The [[Reformed church|Reformed]] churches, following the teachings of [[John Calvin]], believe in a spiritual (or "pneumatic") [[real presence]] of Christ by the power of the [[Holy Spirit]] and received by faith. [[Anglicans]] adhere to [[Anglican eucharistic theology|a range of views]] although the Anglican church officially teaches the real presence. Some Christians reject the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a [[memorialism|memorial]] of the death of Christ.

The [https://web.archive.org/web/20080709031256/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html#c10499 ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document] of the [[World Council of Churches]], attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his [[real presence]]", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom".

====Baptism====
{{Main|Baptism}}
* [[Infant baptism]]
* [[Believer's baptism]]