Christian theology

===Ecclesiastical polity===
{{Main|Ecclesiastical polity}}
Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a [[Church body|church]] or [[Christian denomination]]. It also denotes the [[Minister of religion|ministerial]] structure of the church and the authority relationships between churches. Polity is closely related to [[Ecclesiology]], the study of doctrine and theology relating to church organization.

Issues of church governance appear in the first chapters of the [[Acts of the Apostles]]; the first act recorded after the [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|ascension]] is the election of [[Saint Matthias|Matthias]] to replace [[Judas Iscariot]]. Over the years a system of episcopal polity developed.

During the [[Protestant Reformation]], arguments were made that the [[New Testament]] prescribed structures quite different from that of the [[Catholic Church]] of the day, and different Protestant bodies used different types of polity. It was during this period that [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]] wrote ''[[Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity]]'' to defend the polity of the [[Church of England]] against the [[Puritans]].

Episcopal polity is used in several closely related senses. Most commonly it refers to the field of church governance in the abstract, but it also can refer to the governance of a particular Christian body. In this sense it is used as a term in [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]. "Polity" is sometimes used as a shorthand for the church governance structure itself.

Though each church or denomination has its own characteristic structure, there are three general types of polity.

;Episcopal polity
{{Main|Episcopal polity}}
Churches having episcopal polity are governed by [[bishop]]s. The title bishop comes from the Greek word ''episkopos'', which literally translates into ''overseer''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bishop |title=Bishop– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> In regard to [[Catholicism]], bishops have authority over the [[diocese]], which is both sacramental and political; as well as performing [[ordination]]s, [[confirmation]]s, and [[consecration]]s, the bishop supervises the [[clergy]] of the diocese and represents the diocese both secularly and in the hierarchy of church governance.

Bishops in this system may be subject to higher ranking bishops (variously called [[archbishop]]s, [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitans]] or [[patriarch]]s, depending upon the tradition; ''see also [[Bishop]] for further explanation of the varieties of bishops''.) They also meet in councils or [[synod]]s. These synods, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, may govern the dioceses which are represented in the council, though the [[synod]] may also be purely advisory.

Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not proof of episcopal polity. For example, in [[Mormonism]], the "bishop" occupies the office that in an [[Anglican]] church would be occupied by a [[priest]].

Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command.
Instead, some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of bishops, but by [[Laity|lay]] and [[Clergy|clerical]] councils. Further, patterns of authority are subject to a wide variety of historical rights and honors which may cut across simple lines of authority.

Episcopal polity is the predominant pattern in [[Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Anglican]] churches. It is also common in [[Methodist]] and [[Lutheran]] churches. Among churches with episcopal polity, different theories of autonomy are expressed. So in [[Roman Catholicism]] the church is viewed as a single polity headed by the [[pope]], but in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] the various churches retain formal [[autonomy]] but are held to be unified by shared doctrine and [[conciliarity]]—that is, the authority of councils, such as [[ecumenical council]]s, [[Holy Synod]]s and the former standing council, the [[Endemusa Synod]].

;Presbyterian polity
{{Main|Presbyterian polity}}
Many [[Reformed church|Reformed]] churches, notably those in the [[Presbyterian]] and Continental Reformed traditions, are governed by a hierarchy of councils. The lowest level council governs a single local church and is called the ''[[Kirk Session|session]]'' or ''[[Consistory (Protestantism)#Reformed usage|consistory]]''; its members are called ''[[Elder (religious)|elders]]''. The [[minister of religion|minister]] of the church (sometimes referred to as a ''teaching elder'') is a member of and presides over the session; lay representatives (''ruling elders'' or, informally, just elders) are elected by the congregation. The session sends representatives to the next level higher council, called the ''[[presbytery (church polity)|presbytery]]'' or ''classis''. In some Presbyterian churches there are higher level councils ([[synod]]s or [[General Assembly (presbyterian church)|general assemblies]]). Each council has authority over its constituents, and the representatives at each level are expected to use their own judgment. Hence higher level councils act as courts of appeal for church trials and disputes, and it is not uncommon to see rulings and decisions overturned.

Presbyterian polity is, of course, the characteristic governance of [[Presbyterian]] churches, and also of churches in the Continental [[Reformed church|Reformed]] tradition. Elements of presbyterian polity are also found in other churches. For example, in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] governance by bishops is paralleled by a system of deputies, who are lay and clerical representatives elected by parishes and, at the national level, by the dioceses. Legislation in the [[General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|general convention]] requires the separate consent of the bishops and of the deputies.

Note that, in episcopal polity, a [[presbyter]] refers to a [[priest]].

;Congregational polity
{{Main|Congregational polity}}
[[Congregationalist polity]] dispenses with titled positions such as [[bishop]] as a requirement of church structure. The local congregation rules itself, though local leaders and councils may be appointed.

Members may be sent from the congregation to associations that are sometimes identified with the church bodies formed by [[Lutheran]]s, [[Presbyterian]]s, [[Anglican]]s, and other non-congregational [[Protestants]]. The similarity is deceptive, however, because the congregationalist associations do not exercise control over their members (other than ending their membership in the association). Many congregationalist churches are completely independent in principle. One major exception is [[Ordination]], where even congregationalist churches often invite members of the [[vicinage]] or association to ordain their called pastor.

It is a principle of congregationalism that ministers do not govern congregations by themselves. They may preside over the congregation, but it is the congregation which exerts its authority in the end.

Congregational polity is sometimes called "Baptist polity", as it is the characteristic polity of [[Baptist church]]es.