Advaita Vedanta

==History of Advaita Vedānta==
[[File:Shri Gaudapadacharya Statue.jpg|[[Gaudapada]], one of the most important pre-Śaṅkara philosophers in Advaita tradition|thumb|upright]]
{{Main|History of Advaita Vedanta}}

===Historiography===
The historiography of Advaita Vedanta is coloured by Orientalist notions,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24-25}}{{refn|group=note|name=Orientalist|In the Orientalist view, the medieval Muslim period was a time of stagnation and cultural degeneration, in which the original purity of the Upanisadic teachings, systematized by philosophers like Shankara, was lost. In this view, "the genuine achievements of Indian civilization" were recovered during the British colonial rule of India, due to the efforts of western Indologists, who viewed Advaita Vedanta as the authentic philosophy of the Upanishads, and Shankara as its greatest exponent.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24-25}}<ref group=note>See also Devdutt Pattanaik (August 30, 2020), [https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/who-is-a-hindu-what-they-dont-tell-you-about-advaita/articleshow/77829600.cms ''Who is a Hindu? - What they don't tell you about Advaita''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219134850/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/who-is-a-hindu-what-they-dont-tell-you-about-advaita/articleshow/77829600.cms |date=19 December 2021 }}, Mumbai Mirror.</ref> While this view has been criticised by postcolonial studies and critiques of Orientalism, "in some corners of the academy, the Orientalists' understanding of premodern Indian history has so far escaped thorough reexamination."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24}}}} while [[Neo-Vedanta|modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta]], which developed as a reaction to western [[Orientalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]]{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138, 141–142}} have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought."{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} According to Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan, "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."{{sfn|Allen|Venkatkrishnan|2017}}

===Early Vedānta===
The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedānta gives an interpretation.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=95–96}} The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments".{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}}{{refn|group=note|Nevertheless, Balasubramanian argues that since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}}}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|pp=xxx–xxxi}}{{refn|group=note|Deutsch and Dalvi point out that, in the Indian context, texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=95}}}}

The [[Brahma Sutras]] of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedānta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}} were compiled in its present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that".{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}} Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE and 200 CE.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}} The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of the Upanishads, possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint."<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" /> Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}

===Early Advaita Vedānta===
Two Advaita writings predating Maṇḍana Miśra and Shankara were known to scholars such as Nakamura in the first half of 20th-century, namely the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] (7th century).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Later scholarship added the [[Sannyasa Upanishads]] (first centuries CE{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|p=10}}) to the earliest known corpus, some of which are of a sectarian nature,{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=3–4}} and have a strong Advaita Vedānta outlook.{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=17–18}}<ref>Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0812692983}}, p. 332 with note 68</ref><ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (1998), Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791436967}}, pp. 62–63</ref>

According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period [between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara], but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html |title=advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'' |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303094318/http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedānta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

==== Gauḍapāda and ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'' ====
{{Main|Gaudapada}}

According to tradition, Gauḍapāda (6th century){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} was the teacher of [[Govinda Bhagavatpada]] and the grandteacher of Shankara. Gauḍapāda wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'', also known as the ''{{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}}'' or the ''{{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}''.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=280}} The ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'' is a commentary in verse form on the ''[[Mandukya Upanishad|Māṇḍūkya Upanishad]]'', one of the shortest [[Upanishads]] consisting of just 13 prose sentences. Of the ancient literature related to Advaita Vedānta, the oldest surviving complete text is the ''Māṇḍukya Kārikā''.{{sfn|Sarma|1997|p=239}} The ''Māṇḍūkya Upanishad'' was considered to be a [[Śruti]] before the era of Adi Shankara, but not treated as particularly important.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=280}} In later post-Shankara period its value became far more important, and regarded as expressing the essence of the Upanishad philosophy. The entire ''Karika'' became a key text for the Advaita school in this later era.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=280–281}}{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}}

Gaudapada took over the Yogachara teaching of ''[[Yogacara#Representation-only|vijñapti-mātra]]'', "representation-only," which states that the empirical reality that we experience is a fabrication of the mind, experienced by consciousness-an-sich,{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{refn|group=note|It is often used interchangeably with the term ''citta-mātra'', but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only." Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying label of "absolute idealism" or "idealistic monism".{{sfn|Kochumuttom|1999|p=1}} A better translation for ''vijñapti-mātra'' is ''representation-only''.{{sfn|Kochumuttom|1999|p=5}}}} and the four-cornered negation, which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute'.{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{Sfn|Sarma|2007|pp=126, 143-144}}{{refn|group=note|1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not.{{sfn|Garfield|Priest|2003}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}} The 'four-cornered negation' is an English gloss of the Sanskrit, [[Catuṣkoṭi|Chatushkoti]].{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into the philosophy of ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177-178}}{{refn|group=note|The influence of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] on other religions and philosophies was not limited to Vedanta. Kalupahana notes that the [[Visuddhimagga]] – a Theravada Buddhist tradition, contains "some metaphysical speculations, such as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even the [[Yogacara|Yogacarins]]".{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=206}}}} In this view,
{{blockquote|the ultimate ontological reality is the pure consciousness, which is bereft of attributes and intentionality. The world of duality is nothing but a vibration of the mind (manodṛśya or manaspandita). The pluralistic world is imagined by the mind (saṁkalpa) and this false projection is sponsored by the illusory factor called māyā.<ref group=web name=iepgauda>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/gauḍapad/ Gaudapada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615104440/https://www.iep.utm.edu/gau%e1%b8%8dapad/ |date=15 June 2020 }}, Devanathan Jagannathan, University of Toronto, IEP</ref>}}

[[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] uses the concepts of [[Ajativada|Ajātivāda]] to explain that 'the Absolute' is not subject to [[Saṃsāra|birth, change and death]]. The Absolute is ''aja'', the unborn eternal.{{sfn|Sarma|1996|p=127}} The [[Empiricism|empirical world]] of [[phenomenon|appearances]] is considered [[Maya (illusion)|unreal]], and not [[Philosophical realism|absolutely existent]].{{sfn|Sarma|1996|p=127}}

===Early medieval period - Maṇḍana Miśra and Adi Shankara ===

====Maṇḍana Miśra====
[[Maṇḍana Miśra]], an older contemporary of Shankara,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}} was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of [[Kumarila]], but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the ''Brahma-siddhi''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=31}}{{sfn|Thrasher|1993|p=vii–x}} According to Fiordalis, he was influenced by the Yoga-tradition, and with that indirectly by Buddhism, given the strong influence of Buddhism on the Yoga-tradition.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=24, note 12}} For a couple of centuries he seems to have been regarded as "the most important representative of the Advaita position,"{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33-34}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|King|2002|p=128}}: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence."{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}}} and the "theory of error" set forth in the ''Brahma-siddhi'' became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=32}}

====Adi Shankara====
{{Main|Adi Shankara}}
{{See also|History of India#Late Middle Kingdoms – The Late-Classical Age|l1=Late-Classical Age|History of Hinduism#Middle Ages|l2=Hinduism in the Middle Ages}}

Very little is known about Shankara. According to Dalal, "Hagiographical accounts of his life, the ''[[Digvijaya (conquest)|Śaṅkaravijayas]]'' ("Conquests of Śaṅkara"), were composed several centuries after his death,"<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/> in the 14th to 17th century, and established Shankara as a rallying symbol of valuesin a time when most of India was conquered by Muslims.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}} He is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedānta school, but was actually a systematizer, not a founder.<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/>{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}}

=====Systematizer of Advaita thought=====
Shankara was a scholar who synthesized and systematized ''Advaita-vāda'' thought which already existed at his lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=13}} synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] in the 8th century, reforming [[Badarayana]]'s Vedānta tradition.<ref name=johnkoller/> According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=13}} yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XV}} Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with ''moksha'', "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XV}} following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XVIII, note 3}} Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=56, incl. note 12}}

=====Writings=====
{{Main|Adi Shankara bibliography}}

Adi Shankara is best known for his reviews and commentaries (''Bhasyas'') on ancient Indian texts. His ''Brahmasutrabhasya'' (literally, commentary on [[Brahma Sutra]]) is a fundamental text of the Vedānta school of Hinduism.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}} His commentaries on ten [[Mukhya Upanishads|Mukhya]] (principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=30–31}} Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gitā (part of his [[Prasthana Trayi]] Bhasya).{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}} He also authored [[Upadesasahasri]], his most important original philosophical work.<ref name=johnkoller>John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): ''The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-134-18001-1}}, pp. 98–106</ref><ref name=halbfassyoga>Wilhelm Halbfass (1990), ''Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-0362-4}}, pp. 205–208</ref> The authenticity of Shankara being the author of {{IAST|[[Viveka Chudamani|Vivekacūḍāmaṇi]]}}<ref>Adi Shankaracharya, [https://archive.org/stream/vivekachudamanio00sankrich#page/n3/mode/2up Vivekacūḍāmaṇi] S Madhavananda (Translator), Advaita Ashrama (1921)</ref> has been questioned, and "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara."<ref>John Grimes (2004), ''The Vivekacudamani of Sankaracarya Bhagavatpada: An Introduction and Translation'', Ashgate, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3395-2}}, p.23</ref>

=====Influence of Shankara=====
While Shankara has an unparalleled status in the history of Advaita Vedanta, scholars have questioned the traditional narrative of Shankara's early influence in India.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}} Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary [[Maṇḍana Miśra]], who was considered to be the major representative of Advaita.{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}} Only when Vacaspati Misra, an influential student of Maṇḍana Miśra, harmonised the teachings of Shankara with those of Maṇḍana Miśra, Shankara's teachings gained prominence.{{sfn|King|1999|p=55}} Some modern Advaitins argue that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly.{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=6-7}} In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school.{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=6-7}} According to [[Satchidanandendra Sarasvati]], "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and [[Bhāskara (Bhedabheda Vedanta)|Bhaskara]]."{{sfn|Satchidanandendra Sarasvati|1997|p=6}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought;{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=157; 229 note 57}} Vedanta became a major influence when Vedanta philosophy was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=691-693}} such as [[Ramanuja]] (11th c.), who aligned [[bhakti]], "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views.<ref group=web name=EB_Ramanuja>Encyclopædia Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja Ramanajua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621165517/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja |date=21 June 2022 }}</ref>

The cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta started only centuries later, in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] in the 14th century,{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} when Sringeri ''matha'' started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire and became a powerful institution.{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}} [[Vidyaranya]], also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from ca. 1374–1380 to 1386{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}} played a central role in this growing influence of Advaita Vedanta, and the [[deification]] of Shankara as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]].{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}{{sfn|Bader|2001|p=vii}} From 1346 onwards Sringeri ''matha'' received patronage from the Vijayanagara kings, and its importance and influence grew rapidly in the second half of the 14th century.{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}}{{refn|group=note|The insignificance of Srineri ''matha'' before this time was such, that Hacker and Kulke & Rothermund have argued that Sringeri ''matha'' may have been founded by Vidyaranya himself, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}}} Vidyaranya and the Sringeri matha competed for royal patronage and converts with Srivaisnava ''Visistadvaita'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire,{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}}  and Madhava (the pre-ordination name of Vidyaranya) presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', portraying the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} The subsequent ''[[Digvijaya (conquest)|Shankara Digvijayam]]'' genre, following the example of the earlier ''Madhva Digvijayam'',{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=157}} presented Shankara as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]], conquering the four quarters of India and bringing harmony.{{sfn|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}{{sfn|Bader|2001|p=vii}} The genre created legends to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}

Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists, following Vidyaranya, elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition."{{sfn|King|2002|p=129}} Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=129-130}}

====Advaita Vedanta sub-schools====
Two defunct schools are the ''Pancapadika'' and ''Istasiddhi'', which were replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The still existing [[Bhāmatī]] and [[Vivarana]] developed in the 11th-14th century.<ref group=web name =BhamatiVivarana/>{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the further interpretations of the concepts of [[Maya (illusion)|māyā]] and [[Avidya (Hinduism)|avidya]].<ref group=web name =BhamatiVivarana />

[[Padmapada]] (c. 800 CE),{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=38}} the founder of the defunct Pancapadika school, was a direct disciple of Shankara. He wrote the ''Pancapadika'', a commentary on the ''Sankara-bhaya''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=38}} Padmapada diverged from Shankara in his description of ''avidya'', designating ''prakrti'' as ''avidya'' or ''ajnana''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=39}}

Sureśvara (fl. 800–900 CE){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=30}} was a contemporary of Shankara,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}} and often (incorrectly) identified with Maṇḍana Miśra.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}}{{refn|group=note|name=karlpottermms|{{harvnb|Potter|2008|pp=346–347, 420–423}}: "There is little firm historical information about Suresvara; tradition holds Suresvara is same as Mandanamisra."}} Sureśvara has also been credited as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita Vedānta.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=30}}

Mandana Mishra's student [[Vachaspati Miśra]] (9th/10th century CE),{{sfn|Fowler|2002|p=129}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=85-86}}{{sfn|Larson|Bhattacharya|1987|p=301-312}} who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=34}} wrote the ''[[Bhamati]]'', a commentary on Shankara's ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'', and the ''Brahmatattva-samiksa'', a commentary on Mandana Mishra's ''Brahma-siddhi''. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=35}}<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana>{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/bhavir.html |title=The Bhamati and Vivarana Schools |access-date=11 September 2012 |archive-date=7 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407053224/http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/bhavir.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the [[Jiva]] as the source of avidya.<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana /> It sees contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors.{{sfn|King|1999|p=56}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=37}}

Vimuktatman (c. 1200 CE){{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=198}} wrote the ''Ista-siddhi''.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=198}} It is one of the four traditional ''siddhi'', together with Mandana's ''Brahma-siddhi'', Suresvara's ''Naiskarmya-siddhi'', and Madusudana's ''Advaita-siddhi''.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|pp=198–199}} According to Vimuktatman, absolute Reality is "pure intuitive consciousness".{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=199}} His school of thought was eventually replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}}

Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} wrote the ''Pancapadika-Vivarana'', a commentary on the ''Pancapadika'' by [[Padmapadacharya]].{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The ''Vivarana'' lends its name to the subsequent school. According to Roodurmun, "[H]is line of thought [...] became the leitmotif of all subsequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita tradition."{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The Vivarana school takes an epistemological approach. It is distinguished from the ''Bhamati'' school by its rejection of action and favouring Vedic study and "a direct apprehension of Brahma."{{sfn|King|1999|p=56}} Prakasatman was the first to propound the theory of ''mulavidya'' or ''maya'' as being of "positive beginningless nature",{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=41}} and sees Brahman as the source of avidya. Critics object that Brahman is pure consciousness, so it cannot be the source of avidya. Another problem is that contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance, are attributed to Brahman.<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana />

Another late figure which is widely associated with Advaita and was influential on late Advaita thought was [[Shriharsha|Śrīharṣa]].

===Late medieval India===
Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan note that Shankara is very well-studied, but "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."{{sfn|Allen|Venkatkrishnan|2017}}

While indologists like Paul Hacker and Wilhelm Halbfass took Shankara's system as the measure for an "orthodox" Advaita Vedānta, the living Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like the ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} Yoga and samkhya had become minor schools of thought since the time of Shankara, and no longer posed a thread for the sectarian identity of Advaita, in contrast to the Vaishnava traditions.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} 

The ''Yoga Vasistha'' became an authoritative source text in the Advaita vedānta tradition in the 14th century, and the "yogic Advaita"{{sfn|Fort|1996|p=136}}{{sfn|Fort|1998|p=97}} of Vidyāraņya's ''Jivanmuktiviveka'' (14th century) was influenced by the ''(Laghu-)Yoga-Vasistha'', which in turn was influenced by [[Kashmir Shaivism]].{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=4}} Vivekananda's 19th century emphasis on ''nirvikalpa samadhi'' was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedānta. In the 16th and 17th centuries, some [[Nath]] and [[hatha yoga]] texts also came within the scope of the developing Advaita Vedānta tradition.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}}

According to [[Andrew J. Nicholson|Andrew Nicholson]], it was with the arrival of Islamic rule, first in the form of [[Delhi Sultanate]] and later the [[Mughal Empire]], and the subsequent persecution of Indian religions, that Hindu scholars began a self-conscious attempts to define an [[Unifying Hinduism|identity and unity]].{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=190–194, 200–201}}<ref name="gaborieau7">{{cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=June 1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}</ref> Between the twelfth and the fourteenth century, this effort emerged with the "astika and nastika" schema of classifying Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=190–194, 200–201}} 

==== Vidyāraṇya ====
It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} Advaita Vedanta's position as most influential Hindu ''darsana'' took shape as Advaitins in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}} Sringeri ''matha'' started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}} who shifted their allegiance from ''Advaitic'' [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] Shaivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy.{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=215, 221-222}}

Central in this repositioning was [[Vidyaranya|Vidyāraṇya]],{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}} also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Śringeri Śarada Pītham]] from 1380 to 1386<ref name="Chisholm, Hugh 1911">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mādhava Āchārya". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} He inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India, in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic [[Delhi Sultanate]],{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}}{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} but his efforts were also targeted at Srivaisnava groups, especially ''[[Vishishtadvaita|Visistadvaita]]'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55}} Sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system, and Vidyaranya efforts were aimed at promoting Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}} Most of Shankara's biographies were created and published from the 14th to the 17th century, such as the widely cited ''Śankara-vijaya'', in which legends were created to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=90}}

Vidyaranya and his brothers wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} In his [[doxography]] ''[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha]]'' ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', presenting the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160-162}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visitadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} [[Bhedabheda]] wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=161}} Vidyaranya became head of Sringeri ''matha'', proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}} Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (''mathas'') to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}

=== Modern Advaita ===

==== Niścaldās and "Greater" Advaita ====
Michael S. Allen has written on the influence and popularity of Advaita Vedanta in early modern north India, especially on the work of the Advaita [[Dadu Dayal|Dādū-panthī]] monk [[Niścaldās]] (ca. 1791–1863), author of ''The Ocean of Inquiry'' (Hindi: Vicār-sāgar), a vernacular compendium of Advaita.{{sfn|Allen|2017}} According to Allen, the work of Niścaldās "was quite popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: it was translated into over eight languages and was once referred to by Vivekananda as having 'more influence in India than any [book] that has been written in any language within the last three centuries.'"{{sfn|Allen|2017}} 

Allen highlights the widespread prominence in early modern India of what he calls "Greater Advaita Vedānta" which refers to popular Advaita works, including "narratives and dramas, “eclectic” works blending Vedānta with other traditions, and vernacular works such as ''The Ocean of Inquiry''."{{sfn|Allen|2017}} Allen refers to several popular late figures and texts which draw on Advaita Vedanta, such as the Maharashtrian sant [[Eknath|Eknāth]] (16th c.), the popular ''[[Adhyatma Ramayana|Adhyātma-rāmāyaṇa]]'' (ca. late 15th c.), which synthesizes Rama bhakti and advaita metaphysics and the ''[[Tripura Rahasya|Tripurā-rahasya]]'' (a tantric text that adopts an advaita metaphysics).{{sfn|Allen|2017}} Other important vernacular Advaita figures include the Hindu authors Manohardās and Māṇakdās (who wrote the  Ātma-bodh). Advaita literature was also written in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, and Oriya.{{sfn|Allen|2017}}

====Neo-Vedanta====
[[File:MKGandhi.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mahatma Gandhi]] stated "I am an advaitist".<ref name=jordens116>{{cite book|author=J. Jordens|title=Gandhi's Religion: A Homespun Shawl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELODDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|year=1998|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-37389-1|page=116}}</ref><ref name=long194>{{cite book|author=Jeffrey D. Long|editor=Rita Sherma and Arvind Sharma|title=Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA194|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-8192-7|page=194|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073153/https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA194|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu nationalism}}

According to King, with the consolidation of the British imperialist rule the new rulers started to view Indians through the "colonially crafted lenses" of [[Orientalism]]. In response Hindu nationalism emerged, striving for socio-political independence and countering the influence of Christian missionaries.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=107–109}} Among the colonial era intelligentsia the monistic Advaita Vedānta has been a major ideological force for Hindu nationalism,<ref>{{cite book|author=Anshuman A Mondal|title=Nationalism and Post-Colonial Identity: Culture and Ideology in India and Egypt|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw2CAgAAQBAJ |year= 2004|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-49417-0|pages=85, 256}}</ref> with Hindu intellectuals formulating a "humanistic, inclusivist" response, now called Neo-Vedānta, attempting to respond to this colonial stereotyping of "Indian culture [as] backward, superstitious and inferior to the West."{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138}}

Due to the influence of Vidyaranya's [[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|''Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'']], early Indologists regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} Vedānta came to be regarded, both by westerners as by Indian nationalists, as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion" and umbrella of "inclusivism".{{sfn|King|2002|pp=107–109, 128}} Colonial era Indian thinkers, such as [[Vivekananda]], presented Advaita Vedānta as an inclusive universal religion, a spirituality that in part helped organize a religiously infused identity. It also aided the rise of Hindu nationalism as a counter weight to Islam-infused Muslim communitarian organizations such as the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]], to Christianity-infused colonial orientalism and to religious persecution of those belonging to Indian religions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian Morris|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA142|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85241-8|pages=112, 141–144|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180154/https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA142#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=gaborieau7/><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Blom Hansen|title=The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|year=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691006710|pages=76–77, 91–92, 179–181, 44–47, 69–70|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180224/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|url-status=live}}</ref> Neo-Vedānta subsumed and incorporated Buddhist ideas thereby making the [[Buddha]] a part of the Vedānta tradition, all in an attempt to reposition the history of Indian culture.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138, 141–142}} This view on Advaita Vedānta, according to King, "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression".{{sfn|King|2002|pp=132–133, 172}}

Vivekananda discerned a [[Universalism|universal religion]], regarding all the apparent differences between various traditions as various manifestations of one truth.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|pp=91–92}} Vivekananda emphasised ''nirvikalpa'' [[samadhi]] as the spiritual goal of Vedānta, he equated it to the liberation in [[Yoga]] and encouraged Yoga practice which he called ''Raja yoga''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rabindra Kumar Dasgupta|title=Swami Vivekananda on Indian philosophy and literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U4LXAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|isbn=978-81-85843-81-0|pages=145–146, 284–285|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116190113/https://books.google.com/books?id=U4LXAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|According to Comans, this approach is missing in historic Advaita texts.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Comans | first=Michael | s2cid=170870115 | title=The Question of the Importance of Samadhi in Modern and Classical Advaita Vedanta | journal=Philosophy East and West | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | volume=43 | issue=1 | year=1993 | pages=19–38 | doi=10.2307/1399467 | jstor=1399467 }}</ref>}} With the efforts of [[Swami Vivekananda|Vivekananda]], modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought", though Hindu beliefs and practices are diverse.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}}

[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], first a professor at Oxford University and later a President of India, further popularized Advaita Vedānta, presenting it as the essence of Hinduism.<ref group=web name="IEP" /> According to Michael Hawley, Radhakrishnan saw other religions, as well as "what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of Hinduism," as interpretations of Advaita Vedānta, thereby "in a sense Hindusizing all religions".<ref group=web name="IEP" /> Radhakrishnan metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedānta, but he reinterpreted Advaita Vedānta for contemporary needs and context.<ref group=web name="IEP">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/#H2 |title=Michael Hawley, ''Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888—1975)'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=9 June 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712171420/https://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/#H2 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=bhedabheda|Neo-Vedanta seems to be closer to [[Bhedabheda|Bhedabheda-Vedanta]] than to Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, with the acknowledgement of the reality of the world. Nicholas F. Gier: "Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled "neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his ''The Life Divine'', declares that he has moved from Sankara's "universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term."<ref>{{Cite journal |first =Nicholas F. |last =Gier |year=2012 |title=Overreaching to be different: A critique of Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different |journal=[[International Journal of Hindu Studies]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=259–285 | doi =10.1007/s11407-012-9127-x|s2cid =144711827}}</ref>}}

Mahatma Gandhi declared his allegiance to Advaita Vedānta, and was another popularizing force for its ideas.<ref>{{cite book|first=Nicholas F.|last=Gier|year=2004|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=40–42|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073707/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Contemporary Advaita Vedānta====
Contemporary teachers are the orthodox [[Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham]]; the more traditional teachers [[Sivananda Saraswati]] (1887–1963), [[Chinmayananda Saraswati]] (1916-1993),<ref group=web name="AV_Teachers" /> [[Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya)]] (1930-2015), Swami Paramarthananda, Swami Tattvavidananda Sarasvati, Carol Whitfield (Radha), Sri Vasudevacharya (previously Michael Comans) <ref group=web name="AV_Teachers" /> and less traditional teachers such as [[Narayana Guru]].<ref group=web name="AV_Teachers">{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita.org.uk/teachers/teachers.htm |title=Advaita Vision, ''teachers'' |access-date=6 April 2015 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129032833/http://www.advaita.org.uk/teachers/teachers.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in 20th century Advaita tradition are [[Chandrashekhara Bharati III|Shri Chandrashekhara Bharati Mahaswami]], [[Chandrashekarendra Saraswati|Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Swamigal]], [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati|Sacchidānandendra Saraswati]].<ref group=web name="Menon">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |title=Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101653/http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Influence on new religious movements====
Advaita Vedānta has gained attention in western [[spirituality]] and [[New Age]] as [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]], where [[Perennial philosophy|various traditions]] are seen as driven by the same non-dual experience.{{sfn|Katz|2007}} Nonduality points to "a primordial, natural awareness without subject or object".<ref group=web name="Undivided">{{Cite web |url=http://undividedjournal.com/about-the-journal/ |title=Undivided Journal, ''About the Journal'' |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823200254/http://undividedjournal.com/about-the-journal/ |archive-date=23 August 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also used to refer to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate, while at the same time all things retain their individuality".<ref group=web name="whatisnond">{{Cite web |url=http://nonduality.org/what-is-nonduality/ |title=Jerry Katz on Nonduality, "What is Nonduality?" |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106211636/https://nonduality.org/what-is-nonduality/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Neo-Advaita]] is a [[new religious movement]] based on a popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedānta and the teachings of [[Ramana Maharshi]].{{sfn|Lucas|2011}} Notable neo-advaita teachers are [[H. W. L. Poonja]],{{sfn|Caplan|2009|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Lucas|2011}} his students [[Gangaji]]{{sfn|Lucas|2011|pp=102–105}} [[Andrew Cohen (spiritual teacher)|Andrew Cohen]]{{refn|group=note|Presently Cohen has distanced himself from Poonja, and calls his teachings "Evolutionary Enlightenment".{{sfn|Gleig|2011|p=10}} ''What Is Enlightenment'', the magazine published by Choen's organisation, has been critical of neo-Advaita several times, as early as 2001. See.<ref group=web>[https://archive.today/20130414172435/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j22/stacey.asp?page=1 What is Enlightenment? 1 September 2006]</ref><ref group=web>[http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j20/editorial.asp What is Enlightenment? 31 December 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310124030/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j20/editorial.asp |date=10 March 2013}}</ref><ref group=web>[https://archive.today/20130414151819/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j31/translucent.asp?page=1 What is Enlightenment? 1 December 2005]</ref>}}, and [[Eckhart Tolle]].{{sfn|Lucas|2011}}