Buddhism

===Late Indian Buddhism and Tantra===
{{main|Vajrayana}}
[[File:Thangka Depicting Vajrabhairava, ca. 1740, Sotheby's.jpg|thumb|Vajrayana adopted deities such as [[Bhairava]], known as [[Yamantaka]] in Tibetan Buddhism.]]
During the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]] (4th–6th centuries) and the empire of [[Harsha|Harṣavardana]] ({{Circa|590}}–647 CE), Buddhism continued to be influential in India, and large Buddhist learning institutions such as [[Nalanda]] and [[Valabhi University|Valabahi]] Universities were at their peak.{{sfnp|Warder|2000|p=442}} Buddhism also flourished under the support of the [[Pala Empire|Pāla Empire]] (8th–12th centuries). Under the Guptas and Palas, Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana developed and rose to prominence. It promoted new practices such as the use of [[mantra]]s, [[dharani]]s, [[mudra]]s, [[mandala]]s and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the [[Tantras (Buddhism)|Buddhist Tantras]]. This new esoteric form of Buddhism can be traced back to groups of wandering yogi magicians called [[mahasiddha]]s.<ref>Ray, Reginald A (2000) ''Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism''.</ref><ref>Davidson, Ronald M.,(2002). ''Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement'', Columbia University Press, p. 228, 234.</ref>

The question of the origins of early Vajrayana has been taken up by various scholars. [[David Seyfort Ruegg]] has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a "pan-Indian religious substrate" which is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava.<ref>Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement, p. 171.</ref>

According to Indologist [[Alexis Sanderson]], various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and [[Shaivism|Saivism]]. Sanderson has argued that Buddhist tantras can be shown to have borrowed practices, terms, rituals and more form Shaiva tantras. He argues that Buddhist texts even directly copied various Shaiva tantras, especially the Bhairava Vidyapitha tantras.<ref>Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, pp. 23, 124, 129-31.</ref><ref>Sanderson, Alexis; Vajrayana:, Origin and Function, 1994</ref> Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's claims for direct influence from Shaiva ''Vidyapitha'' texts are problematic because "the chronology of the ''Vidyapitha'' tantras is by no means so well established"<ref>Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement, p. 204.</ref> and that the Shaiva tradition also appropriated non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions. Thus while "there can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by [[Kapalika]] and other Saiva movements" argues Davidson, "the influence was apparently mutual".<ref>Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement, p. 217.</ref>

Already during this later era, Buddhism was losing state support in other regions of India, including the lands of the [[Karkota Empire|Karkotas]], the [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratiharas]], the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]], the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] and the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]]. This loss of support in favor of Hindu faiths like [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]], is the beginning of the long and complex period of the [[Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent]].<ref>Omvedt, Gail (2003). "Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste", p. 172.</ref> The [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic invasions and conquest of India]] (10th to 12th century), further damaged and destroyed many Buddhist institutions, leading to its eventual near disappearance from India by the 1200s.{{sfnp|Collins|2000|pp=184-185}}