Gnosticism Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Academic studies== ===Development=== Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi, the Gnostic movements were largely perceived through the lens of the early church heresiologists. [[Johann Lorenz von Mosheim]] (1694β1755) proposed that Gnosticism developed on its own in Greece and Mesopotamia, spreading to the west and incorporating Jewish elements. According to Mosheim, Jewish thought took Gnostic elements and used them against Greek philosophy.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3531}} J.{{nbsp}}Horn and Ernest Anton Lewald proposed Persian and Zoroastrian origins, while Jacques Matter described Gnosticism as an intrusion of eastern cosmological and theosophical speculation into Christianity.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3531}} In the 1880s, Gnosticism was placed within Greek philosophy, especially neo-Platonism.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} [[Adolf von Harnack]] (1851β1930), who belonged to the ''School of the History of Dogma'' and proposed a ''Kirchengeschichtliches Ursprungsmodell'', saw Gnosticism as an internal development within the church under the influence of Greek philosophy.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}}{{sfn|Lahe|2006|p=221}} According to Harnack, Gnosticism was the "acute Hellenization of Christianity".{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} The ''[[Religionsgeschichtliche Schule]]'' ("history of religions school", 19th century) had a profound influence on the study of Gnosticism.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} The ''Religionsgeschichtliche Schule'' saw Gnosticism as a pre-Christian phenomenon, and Christian ''gnosis'' as only one, and even marginal instance of this phenomenon.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} According to [[Wilhelm Bousset]] (1865β1920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism,{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} and [[Eduard Norden]] (1868β1941) also proposed pre-Christian origins,{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} while [[Richard August Reitzenstein]] (1861β1931), and [[Rudolf Bultmann]] (1884β1976) also situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} [[Hans Heinrich Schaeder]] (1896β1957) and Hans Leisegang saw Gnosticism as an amalgam of eastern thought in a Greek form.{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3532}} [[Hans Jonas]] (1903β1993) took an intermediate approach, using both the comparative approach of the ''Religionsgeschichtliche Schule'' and existentialist hermeneutics that predated [[Rudolph Bultmann]]'s [[demythologization]] procedure.{{r|jg|page=94-95}} Jonas emphasized the duality between the Gnostic God and the world, and concluded that Gnosticism cannot be derived from Platonism nor Judaism.<ref name=jg >Sariel, Aviram. "[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/jonasian-gnosticism/A9BAD085CFAD0384CA4B2E744119C764 Jonasian Gnosticism]." Harvard Theological Review 116.1 (2023): 91-122.</ref> {{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3533}} Instead he proposed that Gnosticism manifested an existential situation triggered by the conquests of [[Alexander The Great]] and their impact over Greek city-states and "oriental" casts of priests-intellectuals.{{sfn|Jonas|1963|pp=3-27}} {{r|jg|page=107-108}} By contrast, contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish or Judeo-Christian origins;{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3533}} this theses is most notably put forward by Gershom G. Scholem (1897β1982) and [[Gilles Quispel]] (1916β2006).{{sfn|Albrile|2005|pp=3533β3534}} The study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian Christianity received a strong impetus from the discovery of the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] [[Nag Hammadi Library]] in 1945.{{sfn|Broek|1996|p=vii}}{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3535}} A great number of translations have been published, and the works of [[Elaine Pagels]], Professor of Religion at [[Princeton University]], especially ''The Gnostic Gospels'', which detailed the suppression of some of the writings found at Nag Hammadi by early bishops of the Christian church, have popularized Gnosticism in mainstream culture,{{r|National_Book_Award|group=web}}{{r|Beliefnet|group=web}} but also incited strong responses and condemnations from clergical writers.{{sfn|Quispel|2004|p=8}} ===Definitions of Gnosticism=== According to Matthew J. Dillon, six trends can be discerned in the definitions of Gnosticism:{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=24}} * Typologies, "a catalogue of shared characteristics that are used to classify a group of objects together."{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=24}} * Traditional approaches, viewing Gnosticism as a Christian heresy{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=25}} * Phenomenological approaches, most notably [[Hans Jonas]]{{sfn|Jonas|1963}}{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=26}} * Restricting Gnosticism, "identifying which groups were explicitly called gnostics",{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=27}} or which groups were clearly sectarian{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=27}} * Deconstructing Gnosticism, abandoning the category of "Gnosticism"{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=28}} * Psychology and [[cognitive science of religion]], approaching Gnosticism as a psychological phenomenon{{sfn|Dillon|2016|pp=27β28}} ====Typologies==== The 1966 [[Messina]] conference on the origins of gnosis and Gnosticism proposed to designate {{blockquote|... a particular group of systems of the second century after Christ" as ''gnosticism'', and to use ''gnosis'' to define a [[conception of knowledge]] that transcends the times, which was described as "knowledge of divine mysteries for an Γ©lite.{{sfn|Markschies|2003|p=13}}}} This definition has now been abandoned.{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=24}} It created a religion, "Gnosticism", from the "gnosis" which was a widespread element of ancient religions,{{refn|group=note|Markschies: "something was being called "gnosticism" that the ancient theologians had called 'gnosis' ... [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical sense."{{sfn|Markschies|2003|pp=14β15}}}} suggesting a homogeneous conception of gnosis by these Gnostic religions, which did not exist at the time.{{sfn|Markschies|2003|pp=14β15}} According to Dillon, the texts from Nag Hammadi made clear that this definition was limited, and that they are "better classified by movements (such as Valentinian), mythological similarity (Sethian), or similar tropes (presence of a Demiurge)."{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=24}} Dillon further notes that the Messian-definition "also excluded pre-Christian Gnosticism and later developments, such as the Mandaeans and the Manichaeans."{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=24}} Hans Jonas discerned two main currents of Gnosticism, namely Syrian-Egyptian, and Persian, which includes [[Manichaeism|Manicheanism]] and [[Mandaeism]].{{sfn|Albrile|2005|p=3533}} Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view. Persian Gnosticism possesses more dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian [[Zurvanism|Zurvanist Zoroastrians]]. Those of the medieval Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians seem to include elements of both categories. However, scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf MacΓΊch, Ethel S. Drower and Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley argue for a Palestinian origin for Mandaeism. Gilles Quispel divided Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism further into Jewish Gnosticism (the ''[[Apocryphon of John]]''){{sfn|Quispel|2005|p=3510}} and Christian Gnosis (Marcion, Basilides, Valentinus). This "Christian Gnosticism" was Christocentric, and influenced by Christian writings such as the Gospel of John and the Pauline epistles.{{sfn|Quispel|2005|p=3511}} Other authors speak rather of "Gnostic Christians", noting that Gnostics were a prominent substream in the early church.{{sfn|Freke|Gandy|2005}} ====Traditional approaches β Gnosticism as Christian heresy==== The best known example of this approach is [[Adolf von Harnack]] (1851β1930), who stated that "Gnosticism is the acute Hellenization of Christianity."{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=25}} According to Dillon, "many scholars today continue in the vein of Harnack in reading gnosticism as a late and contaminated version of Christianity", notably Darrell Block, who criticises Elaine Pagels for her view that early Christianity was wildly diverse.{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=26}} ====Phenomenological approaches==== [[Hans Jonas]] (1903β1993) took an [[Existential phenomenology|existential phenomenological]] approach to Gnosticism. According to Jonas, [[Social alienation|alienation]] is a distinguishing characteristic of Gnosticism, making it different from contemporary religions. Jonas compares this alienation with the existentialist notion of ''[[geworfenheit]]'', [[Martin Heidegger]]'s "thrownness", as in being thrown into a hostile world.{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=26}} ====Restricting Gnosticism==== In the late 1980s scholars voiced concerns about the broadness of "Gnosticism" as a meaningful category. Bentley Layton proposed to categorize Gnosticism by delineating which groups were marked as gnostic in ancient texts. According to Layton, this term was mainly applied by heresiologists to the myth described in the ''Apocryphon of John'', and was used mainly by the Sethians and the [[Ophites]]. According to Layton, texts which refer to this myth can be called "classical Gnostic".{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=27}} In addition, Alastair Logan uses social theory to identify Gnosticism. He uses [[Rodney Stark]] and William Bainbridge's sociological theory on traditional religion, sects and cults. According to Logan, the Gnostics were a cult, at odds with the society at large.{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=27}} ===Criticism of "Gnosticism" as a category=== According to the [[Westar Institute]]'s Fall 2014 Christianity Seminar Report on Gnosticism, there is no group that possesses all of the usually-attributed features. Nearly every group possesses one or more of them, or some modified version of them. There was no particular relationship among any set of groups which one could distinguish as "Gnostic", as if they were in opposition to some other set of groups. For instance, every sect of Christianity on which we have any information on this point believed in a separate Logos who created the universe at God's behest. Likewise, they believed some kind of secret knowledge ("gnosis") was essential to ensuring one's salvation. Likewise, they had a dualist view of the cosmos, in which the lower world was corrupted by meddling divine beings and the upper world's God was awaiting a chance to destroy it and start over, thereby helping humanity to escape its corrupt bodies and locations by fleeing into celestial ones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fall 2014 Christianity Seminar Report on Gnosticism |url=https://www.westarinstitute.org/projects/christianity-seminar/fall-2014-meeting-report/ |website=westar institute |access-date=31 August 2020}}</ref> According to [[Michael Allen Williams]], the concept of Gnosticism as a distinct religious tradition is questionable, since "gnosis" was a pervasive characteristic of many religious traditions in antiquity, and not restricted to the so-called Gnostic systems.{{sfn|Williams|1996}} According to Williams, the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the [[heresiology|heresiologists]].{{sfn|Williams|1996}} The early church heresiologists created an interpretive definition of Gnosticism, and modern scholarship followed this example and created a ''categorical'' definition. According to Williams the term needs replacing to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises,{{sfn|Williams|1996}} and suggests to replace it with the term "the Biblical demiurgical tradition".{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=28}} According to Karen King, scholars have "unwittingly continued the project of ancient heresiologists", searching for non-Christian influences, thereby continuing to portray a pure, original Christianity.{{sfn|Dillon|2016|p=28}} In light of such increasing scholarly rejection and restriction of the concept of Gnosticism, David G. Robertson has written on the distortions which misapplications of the term continue to perpetuate in religious studies.{{sfn|Robertson|2021}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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