Epistemology Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == Notes and references == ===Notes=== {{Reflist|30em|group=note| refs= <!--{{Refn|name=Floridiargument|group=note|In the context of a lexicographical analysis of the concept of "knowledges" versus "knowledge", [[Luciano Floridi]] mentions {{Harv|Floridi|1996}}: "the attention to historical data in general conceals a deep dissatisfaction with contemporary analytic philosophy, whose intentional lack of concern for the past I find almost sacrilegious."}} {{Refn|name=Stroudargument|group=note|[[Barry Stroud]] {{harv|Stroud|2011}} claims that doing epistemology competently requires the historical study of past attempts to find philosophical understanding of the nature and scope of human knowledge. He argues that since inquiry may progress over time, we may not realize how different the questions that contemporary epistemologists ask are from questions asked at various different points in the history of philosophy.}} --> {{Refn|group=note|name=AlstonEpistemologyVsPsychology|Some philosophers such as [[William Alston]] say {{harv|Alston|2006}} that "if anything is clear with respect to those portions of the work of Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, and Reid—to mention a few—that have been treated in the twentieth century as contributions to epistemology, it is not only that they are intimately connected with cognitive psychology but that they are best classified as cognitive psychology, with the result that extensive surgery is required to extract those portions that we are inclined to regard as 'pure' epistemology."}} {{Refn|group=note|name=Scots_witVsken|In Scots, the distinction is between {{lang|sco|wit}} and {{lang|sco|[[wikt:ken#Scots|ken]]}}}} {{Refn|group=note|name=PlatoCaveVsBrainVat|[[Skeptical scenario]]s in a similar vein date back to [[Plato]]'s ''[[Allegory of the Cave]]'', although Plato's Allegory was quite different in both presentation and interpretation. In contemporary philosophical literature, something akin to evil demon skepticism is presented in [[brain in a vat]] scenarios. See also {{harvsp|IEP New Evil}}.}} }} ===References=== {{Reflist |30em| refs= <!-- Please order references alphabetically by ref name --> <ref name="Al-Ghazali">{{Cite book |last=Al-Ghazali |url=https://www.ghazali.org/works/taf-eng.pdf |title=The Incoherence of Philosophers |language=English |access-date=27 December 2022 |archive-date=2 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102161409/https://www.ghazali.org/works/taf-eng.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Anonymous1847">{{cite journal |last1=Anonymous |title=Jean-Paul Frederich Richter |journal=The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science and Art |date=Nov 1847 |volume=12 |page=317 |hdl=2027/iau.31858055206621 }}</ref> <!--{{Refn|name=Antognazza2015|{{Cite journal | last = Antognazza | first = Maria Rosa | date = 2015-01-02 | title = The Benefit to Philosophy of the Study of Its History | url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09608788.2014.974020 | journal = British Journal for the History of Philosophy | language = en | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 161–184 | doi = 10.1080/09608788.2014.974020 | s2cid = 146427733 | issn = 0960-8788}}}}--> <!-- <ref name="BengsonMoffett2012">{{Cite book |editor-last=Bengson |editor-first=John |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/25384 |title=Knowing How : Essays on Knowledge, Mind, and Action |editor-last2=Moffett |editor-first2=Marc A. |date=2012-01-06 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-538936-4 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389364.001.0001}}</ref> --> <ref name="Bennett2007">{{Cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Karen |date=November 2007 |title=Epistemicide!: The Tale of a Predatory Discourse |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13556509.2007.10799236 |journal=The Translator |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=151–169 |doi=10.1080/13556509.2007.10799236 |s2cid=220274129 |issn=1355-6509 |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=21 January 2022 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|isbn=9780742564190 |series=Elements of philosophy}}</ref> <ref name="Borchert1967">{{cite book |editor-last=Borchert |editor-first=Donald M. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |title-link=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |chapter=Epistemology |volume=3 |publisher=Macmillan |date=1967}}</ref> <ref name="Braustein2012">{{cite book |last=Braunstein |first=Jean-François |date=2012 |chapter=Historical epistemology, old and new |title=Epistemology and history from Bachelard and Canguilhem to today's history of science: conference, 9–11 Dezember 2010 |location=Berlin |publisher=[[Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte]] |pages=33–40 |oclc=930958013 |url=https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P434.PDF |access-date=30 April 2023 |archive-date=30 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430163943/https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P434.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Britannica Epistemology">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |last1=Stroll |first1=Avrum |title=epistemology |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology |access-date=20 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710175341/https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Carus1891">{{Cite book |last=Carus |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgkOAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22though+all+our+knowledge+begins+with+experience%22+carus&pg=PA29 |title=Fundamental Problems: The Method of Philosophy as a Systematic Arrangement of Knowledge |date=1891 |publisher=Open Court |pages=29 |language=en}}</ref> <ref name="Descartes1">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Descartes' Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=16 June 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190118024854/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/ |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Descartes2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Descartes |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/descarte/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=16 June 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306030559/https://iep.utm.edu/descarte/ |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Descartes1985">{{cite book |last=Descartes |first=Rene |title=The Philosophical Writings of Rene Descartes Vol. I |year=1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-28807-1}}</ref> <ref name="Descartes1985b">{{cite book |last=Descartes |first=Rene |title=Philosophical Writings of Rene Descartes Vol. II |year=1985b |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-28808-8}}</ref> <ref name="DuránFormanek2018">{{cite journal |last1=Durán |first1=Juan M. |last2=Formanek |first2=Nico |title=Grounds for Trust: Essential Epistemic Opacity and Computational Reliabilism |journal=Minds and Machines |date=1 December 2018 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=645–666 |doi=10.1007/s11023-018-9481-6 |s2cid=53102940 |language=en |issn=1572-8641 |doi-access=free |arxiv=1904.01052 }}</ref> <ref name="Ferrier1854">{{cite book |last1=Ferrier |first1=James Frederick |title=Institutes of metaphysic: the theory of knowing and being |date=1854 |publisher=W. 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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215110/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195183214-e-3 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Goldman1976">{{cite journal |last1=Goldman |first1=Alvin I. |title=Discrimination and Perceptual Knowledge |journal=The Journal of Philosophy |date=18 November 1976 |volume=73 |issue=20 |pages=771–791 |doi=10.2307/2025679 |jstor=2025679 }}</ref> <ref name="GoldmanOlsson2009">{{cite book |last1=Goldman |first1=Alvin I. |last2=Olsson |first2=E.J. |editor1-first=A. |editor1-last=Haddock |editor2-first=A. |editor2-last=Millar |editor3-first=D. |editor3-last=Pritchard |title=Epistemic Value |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2009 |page=24 |chapter=Reliabilism and the Value of Knowledge |isbn=978-0-19-923118-8 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> <ref name="Haack1993">{{cite book |title=Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology |first=Susan |last=Haack |author-link=Susan Haack |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-631-19679-2}}</ref> <ref name="HájekLin2017">{{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |date=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Hannon2021">{{cite book |last1=Hannon |first1=Michael |date=2021 |chapter=Knowledge, concept of |title=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HANTCO-45 |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-P031-2 |isbn=9780415250696 |access-date=18 June 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215108/https://philpapers.org/rec/HANTCO-45 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="HartmannSprenger2010">{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Hetherington2012">{{Cite book |year=2012 |first=Stephen |last=Hetherington |publisher=Continuum |location=New York |title=Epistemology: The Key Thinkers |edition=1 |isbn=978-1-4411-1783-0}}</ref> <ref name="Hintikka1974">{{Cite book |last=Hintikka |first=Jaakko |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-010-2217-0 |title=Knowledge and the Known |date=1974 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-010-2219-4 |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2217-0}}</ref> <ref name="IchikawaSteup2018">{{cite encyclopedia 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Kitchener as: {{cite encyclopedia |title=Epistemology and its varieties |url=https://www.academia.edu/36978229 |publisher=academia.edu |access-date=2023-05-06 |archive-date=6 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506155131/https://www.academia.edu/36978229 |url-status=live |last1=Kitchener |first1=Richard }}</ref> <ref name="Plato2002">{{cite book |last1=Plato |title=Five Dialogues |date=2002 |publisher=Hackett Pub. 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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812143105/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/apriori/ |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="SEP Belief">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Belief |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=22 June 2020 |archive-date=15 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115080001/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/ |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="SEP definitions #ReaNomDef">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Gupta |first1=Anil |title=Definitions: 1.1 Real and nominal definitions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/definitions/#ReaNomDef |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=28 May 2022 |date=2021 |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501014300/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/definitions/#ReaNomDef |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="SEP 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|editor1-last=Greco |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Sosa |editor2-first=Ernest |title=The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology |location=Malden, MA |publisher=Blackwell |pages=92–116 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK |isbn=9780631202905 |oclc=39269507 |doi=10.1002/9781405164863.ch3 |s2cid=158886670 |access-date=18 June 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215147/https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Zagzebski2017">{{cite journal |last1=Zagzebski |first1=Linda |title=The Search for the Source of Epistemic Good |journal=Metaphilosophy |volume=34 |issue=1/2 |page=13 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/ZAGTFE.pdf |access-date=23 October 2018 |archive-date=8 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008075519/https://philpapers.org/archive/ZAGTFE.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> }} ===References specific to notes=== <span style="display:none">{{Refn|name=Alston2006}}{{Refn|name=AyersAntognazza2019}}{{Refn|name=Ballantyne2019}}{{Refn|name=Frede2020}}{{Refn|name=Floridi1996}}{{Refn|name=Fumerton2003}}{{Refn|name=Kornblith1985}}{{Refn|name=IEP evil-new}}{{Refn|name=Popkin1979}}{{Refn|name=Robinson2023}}{{Refn|name=SEP Episteme and Techne}}<!--{{Refn|name=TurriAlfanoGreco2021}}--></span> {{Reflist|30em| refs= {{Refn|name=Alston2006|{{Cite book |last=Alston |first=William P. |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7591/9781501720574/html |title=Beyond "Justification": Dimensions of Epistemic Evaluation |date=2006-01-01 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-2057-4 |doi=10.7591/9781501720574}}}} {{Refn|name=AyersAntognazza2019|{{Cite book |last1=Ayers |first1=Michael |chapter=Knowledge and Belief from Plato to Locke |date=2019-04-18 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/35220/chapter/299726893 |title=Knowing and Seeing |pages=3–33 |access-date=2023-11-15 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198833567.003.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-883356-7 |last2=Antognazza |first2=Maria Rosa}}}} {{Refn|name=Ballantyne2019|{{Cite book |last=Ballantyne |first=Nathan |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/35018 |title=Knowing Our Limits |date=2019-10-31 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-084728-9 |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190847289.001.0001}}}} {{Refn|name=Frede2020|{{Cite journal |last=Frede |first=Dorothea |date=2020-12-18 |title=Plato's Forms as Functions and Structures |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/hpla/23/2/article-p291_2.xml |journal=History of Philosophy & Logical Analysis |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=291–316 |doi=10.30965/26664275-02302002 |s2cid=234562680 |issn=2666-4283}}}} {{Refn|name=Floridi1996|{{Cite book |last=Floridi |first=Luciano |url=https://brill.com/view/title/323 |title=Scepticism and the Foundation of Epistemology: A Study in the Metalogical Fallacies |date=1996-07-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-24724-6 |doi=10.1163/9789004247246_002}}}} {{Refn|name=Fumerton2003|{{cite book | last = Fumerton | first = Richard | chapter = 13: Introspection and Internalism | pages=257–276 | date= 2003 | editor-last=Nuccetelli | editor-first=Susana| title=New essays on semantic externalism and self-knowledge | publisher=MIT Press | isbn=0262140837}}}} {{Refn|name=IEP evil-new|{{Cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosoph|first=Clayton | last= Littlejohn | title=The New Evil Demon Problem | access-date=16 November 2023 | url=https://iep.utm.edu/evil-new/| ref={{Harvid|IEP New Evil}}}}}} {{Refn|name=Kornblith1985|{{cite journal | last=Kornblith | first= H. | title= Ever Since Descartes | journal=The Monist | volume=68 | issue=2 | pages=264–276 | publisher=Oxford University Press | date= 1985 | doi= 10.5840/monist198568227 | jstor= 27902915 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/27902915 | issn=0026-9662 | access-date=14 November 2023}}}} {{Refn|name=Popkin1979|{{Cite book |last=Popkin |first=Richard H. |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.6142252 | title=The History of Scepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza |year=1979 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley Los Angeles London|edition=1 |doi=10.2307/jj.6142252|isbn=9780520038769 }}}} {{Refn|name=Robinson2023|{{cite encyclopedia | last=Robinson | first= Howard | editor-last=Zalta | editor-first= E. N. | editor-last2 = Nodelman | editor-first2 = U. | encyclopedia= Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| date= 2023 | title=Dualism | url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/| publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | edition=Spring 2023}}}} {{Refn|name=SEP Episteme and Techne|{{Cite encyclopedia| last = Parry| first = Richard| title = Episteme and Techne| year = 2021| encyclopedia = The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| edition = Winter 2021| editor-first = Edward N.| editor-last = Zalta| url = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/episteme-techne/|ref={{Harvid|SEP Episteme and Techne}}}}}} <!--{{Refn|name=TurriAlfanoGreco2021|{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Turri | first= John |first2=Mark |last2=Alfano| first3=John| last3=Greco | title= Virtue Epistemology | encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| year=2021 | editor-first= Edward N. |editor-last= Zalta | url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/epistemology-virtue/}}}}--> }} ===Further reading === {{refbegin|40em}} <!-- Please order books alphabetically by the author's last name --> * {{cite journal | last = Annis | first = David | year = 1978 | title = A Contextualist Theory of Epistemic Justification | journal = American Philosophical Quarterly | volume = 15 | pages = 213–219 }} * [[Alfred Jules Ayer|Ayer, Alfred Jules]]. 1936. ''[[Language, Truth, and Logic]]''. * BonJour, Laurence. 2002. ''Epistemology: Classic Problems and Contemporary Responses''. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. * [[Luc Bovens|Bovens, Luc]] & [[Stephan Hartmann|Hartmann, Stephan]]. 2003. ''Bayesian Epistemology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * [[Panayot Butchvarov|Butchvarov, Panayot]]. 1970. ''The Concept of Knowledge''. Evanston, Northwestern University Press. * {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00048409812348411 | last = Cohen | first = Stewart | year = 1998 | title = Contextualist Solutions to Epistemological Problems: Skepticism, Gettier, and the Lottery | journal = Australasian Journal of Philosophy |volume=76 | issue = 2 | pages = 289–306 }} * Cohen, Stewart. 1999. "Contextualism, Skepticism, and Reasons", in Tomberlin 1999. * [[Jonathan Dancy|Dancy, Jonathan]]. 1991. ''An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology'' (Second Edition). John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|0-631-13622-3}} * {{cite journal | last1 = DeRose | first1 = Keith | author-link = Keith DeRose | year = 1992 | title = Contextualism and Knowledge Attributions | journal = Philosophy and Phenomenological Research | volume = 15 | pages = 213–219 }} * DeRose, Keith. 1999. "[https://fitelson.org/epistemology/derose.pdf Contextualism: An Explanation and Defense] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215110711/http://fitelson.org/epistemology/derose.pdf |date=15 December 2017 }}", in Greco and Sosa 1999. * [[René Descartes|Descartes, Rene]]. 1641. ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'' * Feldman, Richard. 1999. "Contextualism and Skepticism", in Tomberlin 1999, pp. 91–114. * [[Edmund Gettier|Gettier, Edmund]]. 1963. "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", ''Analysis'', Vol. 23, pp. 121–123. [http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html Online text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050819074607/http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html |date=19 August 2005 }}. * Greco, J. & Sosa, E. 1999. ''Blackwell Guide to Epistemology'', Blackwell Publishing. * [[Errol Harris|Harris, Errol E.]] 1970. ''Hypothesis And Perception'', George Allen and Unwin, London, Reprinted 2002 Routledge, London. * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9205.1989.tb00275.x | last1 = Harwood | first1 = Sterling | year = 1989 | title = Taking Skepticism Seriously – And In Context | journal = Philosophical Investigations | volume = 12 | issue = 3 |pages = 223–233 }} * Hay, Clare. 2008. ''The Theory of Knowledge: A Coursebook'', The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge. {{ISBN|978-0-7188-3088-5}} * Hawthorne, John. 2005. "The Case for Closure", ''Contemporary Debates in Epistemology'', Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (ed.): 26–43. * [[Vincent F. Hendricks|Hendricks, Vincent F]]. 2006. ''Mainstream and Formal Epistemology'', New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]. * [[Kant, Immanuel]]. 1781. ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. * Keeton, Morris T. 1962. "Empiricism", in ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, pp. 89–90. * [[Richard Kirkham|Kirkham, Richard]]. 1984. "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?" ''Mind'', 93. * [[Peter D. Klein|Klein, Peter]]. 1981. ''Certainty: a Refutation of Skepticism'', Minneapolis, MN: [[University of Minnesota Press]]. * [[Henry E. Kyburg, Jr.|Kyburg, H.E.]] 1961. ''Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief'', Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. * [[Alfred Korzybski|Korzybski, Alfred]]. 1994 (1933). ''Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics'', Fifth Edition. Ft. Worth, TX: Institute of General Semantics. * {{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134877911 |title=Knowing the Difference : Feminist Perspectives in Epistemology |date=2012-10-12 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-87791-1 |editor-last=Lennon |editor-first=Kathleen |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780203216125 |editor-last2=Whitford |editor-first2=Margaret }} * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1080/00048409612347521 | last1 = Lewis | first1 = David | author-link = David Kellogg Lewis | year = 1996 | title = Elusive Knowledge | journal = Australasian Journal of Philosophy| volume = 74 | issue = 4 | pages = 549–567 }} * [[Edgar Morin|Morin, Edgar]]. 1986. ''La Méthode, Tome 3, La Connaissance de la connaissance'' (Method, 3rd volume : The knowledge of knowledge) * [[Adam Morton|Morton, Adam]]. 2002. ''A Guide Through the Theory of Knowledge'' (Third Edition) Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4051-0012-5}} * Nelson, Quee. 2007. ''The Slightest Philosophy'', Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear Publishing, 296 pages. * [[Ilkka Niiniluoto|Niiniluoto, Ilkka]]. 2002. ''Critical Scientific Realism'', Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. * [[Plato]]. ''[[Meno]]''. * [[Karl Popper|Popper, Karl R.]] 1972. ''Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach'', Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. * Preyer, G./Siebelt, F./Ulfig, A. 1994. ''Language, Mind and Epistemology'', Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. * [[Bertrand Russell|Russell, Bertrand]]. 1912. ''The Problems of Philosophy'', New York: Oxford University Press. * [[Bertrand Russell|Russell, Bertrand]]. 1940. ''An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth'', Nottingham: Spokesman Books. * [[George Santayana|Santayana, George]]. 1923. ''[[Scepticism and Animal Faith]]'', New York: Charles Scribner's Sons – London: Constable and Co. * [[African Spir|Spir, African]]. 1877. ''Denken und Wirklichkeit: Versuch einer Erneuerung der kritischen Philosophie'' (Thought and Reality: Attempt at a Renewal of Critical Philosophy), (Second Edition) Leipzig: J.G. Findel. * {{cite journal | last = Schiffer | first = Stephen | author-link = Stephen Schiffer | year = 1996 | title = Contextualist Solutions to Skepticism | journal = Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society | volume = 96 | pages = 317–333 | doi = 10.1093/aristotelian/96.1.317 }} * Steup, Matthias. 2005. "Knowledge and Skepticism", ''Contemporary Debates in Epistemology'', Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (eds.): 1–13. * Tomberlin, James (ed.). 1999. ''Philosophical Perspectives 13, Epistemology'', Blackwell Publishing. * {{cite book | last = Turri | first = John | year = 2016 | title = Knowledge and the Norm of Assertion: An Essay in Philosophical Science. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers | url = http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/397/knowledge-and-the-norm-of-assertion--an-essay-in-philosophical-science | doi = 10.11647/OBP.0083 | isbn = 978-1-78374-183-0 | publisher = Open Book Publishers | access-date = 21 April 2016 | archive-date = 10 June 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160610184557/http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/397/knowledge-and-the-norm-of-assertion--an-essay-in-philosophical-science | url-status = live | doi-access = free }} * {{Cite book|first=Pierre|last=Wagner|language=fr|editor=Pierre Wagner|pages=9–65|chapter=Introduction|title=Les Philosophes et la science|location=Paris|publisher=[[Éditions Gallimard]]|series=Folio-essais|year=2002|isbn=9782070416257}} * [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein, Ludwig]]. 1922. ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'', [[Frank P. Ramsey]] and [[C.K. Ogden]] (trns.), Dover. [http://www.kfs.org/~jonathan/witt/tlph.html Online text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807042824/http://www.kfs.org/~jonathan/witt/tlph.html |date=7 August 2011 }}. {{refend}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page