Prayer Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Approaches to prayer== ===Direct petitions=== There are different forms of prayer. One of them is to directly appeal to a deity to grant one's requests.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kurian|first1=George Thomas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dk4G-52QT-8C&q=The+most+common+form+of+prayer&pg=PA137|title=The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature|last2=III|first2=James D. Smith|date=2010-04-16|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7283-7|language=en}}</ref> Some have termed this as the social approach to prayer.<ref>Greenberg, Moshe. Biblical Prose Prayer: As a Window to the Popular Religion of Ancient Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1983 [http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8b69p1w7/]</ref> [[Atheist]] arguments against prayer are mostly directed against [[Supplication|petitionary prayer]] in particular. [[Daniel Dennett]] argued that petitionary prayer might have the undesirable psychological effect of relieving a person of the need to take active measures.<ref>{{cite book|first=Daniel C.|last=Dennett|author-link=Daniel Dennett|chapter=Thank Goodness!|title=The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Nonbeliever|title-link=The Portable Atheist|editor-last=Hitchens|editor-first=Christopher|editor-link=Christopher Hitchens|year=2007|publisher=Da Capo Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn= 978-0-306-81608-6|oclc=156811900|quote=Surely it does the world no harm if those who can honestly do so pray for me! No, I'm not at all sure about that. For one thing, if they {{em|really}} wanted to do something useful, they could devote their prayer time and energy to some pressing project that they can do something about.}}</ref> This potential drawback manifests in extreme forms in such cases as [[Christian Scientists]] who rely on prayers instead of seeking medical treatment for family members for easily curable conditions which later result in death.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/06/us/in-child-deaths-a-test-for-christian-science.html?pagewanted=all |title= In Child Deaths, a Test for Christian Science |first= David |last= Margolick |date= 6 August 1990 |newspaper= The New York Times |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141104202219/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/06/us/in-child-deaths-a-test-for-christian-science.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date= 2014-11-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Christopher Hitchens]] (2012) argued that praying to a god which is omnipotent and all-knowing would be presumptuous. For example, he interprets [[Ambrose Bierce]]'s definition of prayer by stating that "the man who prays is the one who thinks that god has arranged matters all wrong, but who also thinks that he can instruct god how to put them right."<ref name="Hitchens 2012 n.p">{{cite book |title= Mortality |last= Hitchens |first= Christopher |author-link= Christopher Hitchens |year= 2012 |publisher= Twelve |place= New York |isbn= 978-1-4555-0275-2 |oclc= 776526158 |title-link= Mortality (book) }}{{page needed|date=November 2014}}</ref> ===Educational approach=== In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it is meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, but not to influence. Among Jews, this has been the approach of Rabbenu Bachya, Rabbi [[Yehuda Halevi]], [[Joseph Albo]], [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]], and [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]]. This view is expressed by Rabbi [[Nosson Scherman]] in the overview to the [[Artscroll]] [[Siddur]] (p. XIII). Among Christian theologians, [[Edward McKendree Bounds|E.M. Bounds]] stated the educational purpose of prayer in every chapter of his book, ''The Necessity of Prayer''. Prayer books such as the [[Book of Common Prayer]] are both a result of this approach and an exhortation to keep it.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bounds|first=Edward McKendree|title=The Necessity of Prayer|publisher=AGES Software|year=1907|isbn=978-0-8010-0659-3}}</ref> ===Rationalist approach=== In this view, the ultimate goal of prayer is to help train a person to focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation ([[meditation]]). This approach was taken by the Jewish scholar and philosopher [[Maimonides]]<ref>Guide to the Perplexed 3:51{{Nonspecific|date=January 2020}}</ref> and the other medieval rationalists.<ref>''[[Sefer ha-Ikkarim]]'' 4:18</ref> It became popular in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic intellectual circles, but never became the most popular understanding of prayer among the laity in any of these faiths. In all three of these faiths today, a significant minority of people still hold to this approach. In a rationalist approach, praying encompasses three aspects. First, '[[logos]]', as the "idea" of the sender, secondly '[[rhema]]ta' as the words to express the idea, and thirdly 'rhemata' and 'logos', to where the idea is sent (e.g. to God, [[Allah]]). Thus praying is not a conversation with God, or Jesus but a one-way direction to the divine.<ref>Reeves R. (JUNE 11, 2015) [https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2015/june-web-only/no-prayer-isnt-really-conversation.html "No, Prayer Isnβt Really a Conversation"] ''Christianity Today''. Accessed 9 April 2023.</ref> Among the [[Abrahamic religions]], [[Islam]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] and [[Hasidic Judaism]] are likely most adhering to this concept, also because it does not allow secondary mythologies, and has taken its spiritual roots from [[Hellenistic philosophy]], particularly from [[Aristotle]].<ref>ULFAT AZIZ-US-SAMAD (2003). Islam & Christianity. ''islambasics''. Accessed 9 April 2023.</ref> Similarly in [[Hinduism]], the different divinities are manifestations of one God with associated prayers. However, many Indians β particularly Hindus β believe that God can be manifest in people, including in people of lower castes, such as [[Sadhu]]s.<ref>[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/06/29/beliefs-about-god-in-india/ "RELIGION IN INDIA: TOLERANCE AND SEGREGATION"] ''Pew Research Center''. Accessed 9 April 2023.</ref> ===Experiential approach=== [[File:Theophile Lybaert - Old Flanders.jpeg|thumb|''Old woman praying'' by [[ThΓ©ophile Lybaert]]]] In this approach, the purpose of prayer is to enable the person praying to gain a direct experience of the recipient of the prayer (or as close to direct as a specific theology permits). This approach is very significant in Christianity and widespread in Judaism (although less popular theologically). In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], this approach is known as [[hesychasm]]. It is also widespread in [[Sufi]] Islam, and in some forms of [[mysticism]]. It has some similarities with the rationalist approach, since it can also involve [[contemplation]], although the contemplation is not generally viewed as being as rational or intellectual. Christian and Roman Catholic traditions also include an experiential approach to prayer within the practice of ''[[lectio divina]]''. Historically a [[Benedictine]] practice, ''lectio divina'' involves the following steps: a short scripture passage is read aloud; the passage is meditated upon using the mind to place the listener within a relationship or dialogue with the text; recitation of a prayer; and concludes with [[Lectio Divina#Contemplatio ("contemplation")|contemplation]]. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] describes prayer and meditation as follows:<ref>{{cite book |title=The Catechism of the Catholic Church |publisher=Vatican |at=ΒΆ 2708 |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p4s1c3a1.htm |access-date=6 January 2021}}</ref> <blockquote>Meditation engages thought, imagination, emotion, and desire. This mobilization of faculties is necessary in order to deepen our convictions of faith, prompt the conversion of our heart, and strengthen our will to follow Christ. Christian prayer tries above all to meditate on the mysteries of Christ, as in [[lectio divina]] or the [[rosary]]. This form of prayerful reflection is of great value, but Christian prayer should go further: to the knowledge of the love of the Lord Jesus, to union with him.</blockquote> The experience of God within [[Apophatic theology|Christian mysticism]] has been contrasted with the concept of experiential religion or [[Religious experience|mystical experience]] because of a long history or authors living and writing about experience with the divine in a manner that identifies God as unknowable and ineffable, the language of such ideas could be characterized paradoxically as "experiential", as well as without the phenomena of experience.<ref>''The Darkness of God: Negativity in Christian Mysticism'' by Denys Turner 1998 Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0-521-64561-1}}</ref> The notion of "religious experience" can be traced back to [[William James]], who used a term called "religious experience" in his book, ''[[The Varieties of Religious Experience]]''.{{sfn|Hori|1999|p=47}}{{Citation not found}} The origins of the use of this term can be dated further back. In the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, several historical figures put forth very influential views that religion and its beliefs can be grounded in experience itself. While [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] held that [[Moral obligation|moral experience]] justified [[religious belief]]s, [[John Wesley]] in addition to stressing individual moral exertion thought that the religious experiences in the [[Methodist movement]] (paralleling the [[Romantic Movement]]) were foundational to religious commitment as a way of life.<ref>Issues in Science and Religion, [[Ian Barbour]], [[Prentice-Hall]], 1966, pp. 68, 79</ref> According to [[Catholic theology|catholic doctrine]], Methodists lack a ritualistic and rational approach to praying but rely on individualistic and moralistic forms of worship in direct conversation with God. This approach is rejected by most [[Orthodox religion]]s.<ref>[https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=9359 "Gestures of Worship: Relearning Our Ritual Language"] ''catholicculture''. Accessed 9 April 2023.</ref> [[Wayne Proudfoot]] traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" to the German theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] (1768β1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of "religious experience" was used by Schleiermacher and [[Albrecht Ritschl|Albert Ritschl]] to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique, and defend the view that human (moral and religious) experience justifies [[religious belief]]s. Such religious empiricism would be later seen as highly problematic and was β during the period in-between world wars β famously rejected by [[Karl Barth]].<ref>[[Issues in Science and Religion]], [[Ian Barbour]], [[Prentice-Hall]], 1966, pp. 114, 116β19</ref> In the 20th century, religious as well as moral experience as justification for religious beliefs still holds sway. Some influential modern scholars holding this [[Liberal Christianity|liberal theological]] view are [[Charles E. Raven|Charles Raven]] and the Oxford physicist/theologian [[Charles Coulson]].<ref>[[Issues in Science and Religion]], [[Ian Barbour]], [[Prentice-Hall]], 1966, pp. 126β27</ref> The notion of "religious experience" was adopted by many scholars of religion, of whom William James was the most influential.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharf |first1=Robert H. |title=The rhetoric of experience and the study of religion |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |date=2000 |volume=7 |pages=267β287}}</ref>{{efn|James also gives descriptions of conversion experiences. The Christian model of dramatic conversions, based on the role-model of Paul's conversion, may also have served as a model for Western interpretations and expectations regarding "enlightenment", similar to Protestant influences on Theravada Buddhism, as described by Carrithers: "It rests upon the notion of the primacy of religious experiences, preferably spectacular ones, as the origin and legitimation of religious action. But this presupposition has a natural home, not in Buddhism, but in Christian and especially Protestant Christian movements which prescribe a radical conversion."{{sfn|Carrithers|1983|p=18}}{{Citation not found}} See Sekida for an example of this influence of William James and Christian conversion stories, mentioning Luther{{sfn|Sekida|1985|pp=196β97}}{{Citation not found}} and St. Paul.{{sfn|Sekida|1985|p=251}} See also McMahan for the influence of Christian thought on Buddhism.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}}{{Citation not found}}}} The notion of "experience" has been criticised.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharf |first1=Robert |title=Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience |journal=Numen |date=1995 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=228β283 |doi=10.1163/1568527952598549 |hdl=2027.42/43810 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/nu/42/3/article-p228_2.xml |access-date=28 March 2022|hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|Mohr|2000|pp=282β86}}{{Citation not found}}{{sfn|Low|2006|p=12}}{{Citation not found}} Robert Sharf points out that "experience" is a typical Western term, which has found its way into Asian religiosity via western influences.{{sfn|Sharf|1995}}{{efn|Robert Sharf: "[T]he role of experience in the history of Buddhism has been greatly exaggerated in contemporary scholarship. Both historical and ethnographic evidence suggests that the privileging of experience may well be traced to certain twentieth-century reform movements, notably those that urge a return to ''[[zazen]]'' or ''[[vipassana]]'' meditation, and these reforms were profoundly influenced by religious developments in the west [...] While some adepts may indeed experience "altered states" in the course of their training, critical analysis shows that such states do not constitute the reference point for the elaborate Buddhist discourse pertaining to the "path".}} The notion of "experience" introduces a false notion of duality between "experiencer" and "experienced", whereas the essence of kensho is the realisation of the "non-duality" of observer and observed.{{sfn|Hori|1994|p=30}}{{Citation not found}}{{sfn|Samy|1998|p=82}}{{Citation not found}} "Pure experience" does not exist; all experience is mediated by intellectual and cognitive activity.{{sfn|Mohr|2000|p=282}}{{Citation not found}}{{sfn|Samy|1998|pp=80β82}}{{Citation not found}} The specific teachings and practices of a specific tradition may even determine what "experience" someone has, which means that this "experience" is not the ''proof'' of the teaching, but a ''result'' of the teaching.{{sfn|Samy|1998|p=80}}{{Citation not found}} A pure consciousness without concepts, reached by "cleaning the doors of perception",{{efn|[[William Blake]]: "If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thru' narrow chinks of his cavern."<ref>{{cite web |title=A Point Of View: The doors of perception |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22648328#:~:text=William%20Blake%20wrote%20that%20%22if,Machen%20expressed%20the%20same%20thought. |website=BBC News |access-date=28 March 2022 |date=26 May 2013}}</ref>}} would be an overwhelming chaos of sensory input without coherence.{{sfn|Mohr|2000|p=284}}{{Citation not found}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page