Philippines Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! === Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1946) === {{main|History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)}} [[File:Vista del Puente de Manila (1847).png|alt=See caption|thumb|[[Manila]], 1847]] Unification and colonization by the [[Crown of Castile]] began when Spanish explorer [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] arrived from [[New Spain]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Nueva España'') in 1565.<ref>{{cite book | last=Wing | first=J.T. | title=Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500–1750 | publisher=Brill | series=Brill's Series in the History of the Environment | year=2015 | isbn=978-90-04-26137-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ | page=[https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109] | quote=At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation. | access-date=February 3, 2024 | archive-date=January 28, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128213911/https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Carson |first1=Arthur L. |title=Higher Education in the Philippines |series=Bulletin |date=1961 |issue=29 |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |publisher=[[Office of Education]], [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=755650 |page=7 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413085104/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name="deBorja-2005">{{cite book|last=de Borja |first=Marciano R. |url=https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |title=Basques In The Philippines |series=The Basque Series |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nevada Press]] |location=Reno, Nev. |isbn=978-0-87417-590-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326224340/https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |archive-date=March 26, 2022 |access-date=April 25, 2023}}</ref>{{rp|pages=20–23}} Many [[Filipinos]] were brought to New Spain [[History of Spanish slavery in the Philippines|as slaves]] and forced crew.<ref>{{cite book |last=Seijas |first=Tatiana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |title=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians |series=Cambridge Latin American Studies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2014 |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-107-06312-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |chapter=The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213113750/https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Intramuros|Spanish Manila]] became the capital of the [[Spanish East Indies]] in 1571,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Beaule |editor-first1=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism |editor-last2=Douglass |editor-first2=John G. |date=April 21, 2020 |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |location=Tucson, Ariz. |isbn=978-0-8165-4084-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204] |language=en |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321081230/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Santiago |first=Fernando A. Jr. |year=2006 |title=Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |journal=Malay |language=fil |publisher=[[De La Salle University]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=70–87 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |via=Philippine E-Journals |issn=2243-7851 |archive-date=August 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821002744/https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |url-status=live }}</ref> Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.<ref>{{cite book|last=Andrade |first=Tonio |url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/ |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-12855-1 |year=2005 |chapter=Chapter 4: La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan |author-link=Tonio Andrade |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121160327/http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-date=November 21, 2007 |via=Gutenberg-e}}</ref> The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of [[divide and rule|divide and conquer]],<ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA374|name=374}}}} bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giráldez |first1=Arturo |title=The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy |date=March 19, 2015 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-4352-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402112011/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Acabado |first=Stephen |date=March 1, 2017 |title=The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |journal=[[International Journal of Historical Archaeology]] |publisher=[[Springer New York]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9 |s2cid=254541436 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106150313/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |archive-date=November 6, 2020 |via=Springer Link}}</ref> Disparate barangays were deliberately [[Reductions|consolidated into towns]], where [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Catholic missionaries]] could more easily convert their inhabitants to [[Christianity]],<ref name="Abinales-2005">{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073346/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA53|name=53}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA68|name=68}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Constantino |first1=Renato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |title=A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War |last2=Constantino |first2=Letizia R. |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-85345-394-9 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59] |author-link1=Renato Constantino |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073504/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> which was initially [[Religious Syncretism|Syncretist]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schumacher |first1=John N. |title=Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its Historical Causes |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |date=1984 |page=254 |url=http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |issn=2244-1093 |oclc=6015358201 |jstor=42632710 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=October 5, 2023 |archive-date=October 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006144446/http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |url-status=live }}</ref> From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the [[Mexico City]]-based [[New Spain|Viceroyalty of New Spain]]; it was then administered from [[Madrid]] after the [[Mexican War of Independence]].<ref name="Halili-2004">{{cite book |last=Halili |first=Maria Christine N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |title=Philippine History |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |year=2004 |edition=First |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123021/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA81|name=81}}}} Manila became the western hub of [[Spanish treasure fleet|trans-Pacific trade]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Kane |first=Herb Kawainui |title=Hawaiʻ Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8248-1829-6 |editor-last=Bob Dye |volume=I |pages=25–32 |chapter=The Manila Galleons |author-link=Herb Kawainui Kane}}</ref> by [[Manila galleon]]s built in [[Bicol Region|Bicol]] and [[Cavite]].<ref>{{cite report|type=Conference proceeding |last=Bolunia |first=Mary Jane Louise A. |chapter=Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon |chapter-url=http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |title=Proceedings of the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference; Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region |url=http://www.themua.org/collections/collections/show/13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413233643/http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015 |access-date=October 26, 2015 |publisher=Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee |page=1 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |oclc=892536655 |via=The Museum of Underwater Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=McCarthy |first=William J. |date=December 1, 1995 |title=The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines |journal=[[International Journal of Maritime History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1177/084387149500700208 |s2cid=163709949}}</ref> During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling [[Philippine revolts against Spain|indigenous revolts]]<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA111|name=111–122}}}} and defending against external military attacks,<ref name="Ooi-2004">{{cite book |editor-last1=Ooi |editor-first1=Keat Gin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=2004 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Closmann |editor-first=Charles Edwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |title=War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age |date=2009 |publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]] |location=College Station, Tex. |isbn=978-1-60344-380-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102727/https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live }}</ref> including [[Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas|Moro piracy]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Klein |editor-first1=Bernhard |editor-last2=Mackenthun |editor-first2=Gesa |title=Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean |date=August 21, 2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-135-94046-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC&pg=PA63 63–66] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |access-date=August 11, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=August 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811080240/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |url-status=live }}</ref> a 17th-century [[Battles of La Naval de Manila|war against the Dutch]], 18th-century [[British occupation of Manila]], and conflict with Muslims in the south.<ref name="Dolan-1991">{{cite book|date=1991 |editor-last=Dolan |editor-first=Ronald E. |title=Philippines |series=Country Studies/Area Handbook Series |url=https://countrystudies.us/philippines/41.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109092341/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/ |archive-date=November 9, 2005 |access-date=February 13, 2023 |via=Country Studies |publisher=[[U.S. Government Publishing Office|GPO]] for the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161256/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/4.htm|name=4}}}}{{undue weight inline|date=August 2023|reason=Article assertions here may be [[WP:UNDUE]] in not considering impact of the [[Seven Year War]] on the Spanish treasury – I'm not enough of a historian to judge.}} Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|name=7–8}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Crossley |first=John Newsome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |title=Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age |date=July 28, 2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4094-8242-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 168–169] |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} averaging 250,000 pesos,<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|name=8}}}} usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cole |first=Jeffrey A. |title=The Potosí Mita, 1573–1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, Calif. |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8047-1256-9 |page=20}}</ref> [[British occupation of Manila|British forces occupied Manila]] from 1762 to 1764 during the [[Seven Years' War]], and Spanish rule was restored with the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|1763 Treaty of Paris]].<ref name="deBorja-2005" />{{rp|pages=81–83}} The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the ''[[Reconquista]]''.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hoadley |editor-first1=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |title=Asian Security Reassessed |editor-last2=Ruland |editor-first2=Jurgen |date=2006 |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-400-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC&pg=PA215 215] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hefner |editor-first1=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |title=Islam in an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia |editor-last2=Horvatich |editor-first2=Patricia |date=September 1, 1997 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-1957-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC&pg=PA43 43–44] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of [[Mindanao]] and [[Jolo]] during the last quarter of the 19th century,<ref>{{cite report|last=United States War Department |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ |title=Annual Report of the Secretary of War |volume=III |date=1903 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA379 379–398] |author-link=United States Department of War}}</ref> and the Muslim [[Moro people|Moro]] in the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |edition=Second |publisher=[[NUS Press]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9971-69-386-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA124 124] |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073403/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramón de Dalmau y de Olivart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |title=Colección de los Tratados, Convenios y Documentos Internacionales Celebrados por Nuestros Gobiernos Con los Estados Extranjeros Desde el Reinado de Doña Isabel II Hasta Nuestros Días, Vol. 4: Acompañados de Notas Historico-Criticas Sobre Su Negociación y Complimiento y Cotejados Con los Textos Originales, Publicada de Real Orden |year=1893 |publisher=El Progreso Editorial |location=Madrid, Spain |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA120 120–123] |language=es |access-date=June 27, 2020 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124613/https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Ilustrados 1890.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Photo of a large group of men on steps. Some are seated, and others are standing; several are wearing top hats.|''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in [[Madrid]] around 1890]] Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Castro |first=Amado A. |date=1982 |title=Foreign Trade and Economic Welfare in the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule |url=https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |journal=Philippine Review of Economics |publisher=[[University of the Philippines School of Economics]] |volume=19 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=97–98 |issn=1655-1516 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |author-link1=Amado Castro |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211184927/https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |archive-date=February 11, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Romero |first1=Ma. Corona S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |title=Rizal & the Development of National Consciousness |last2=Sta. Romana |first2=Julita R. |last3=Santos |first3=Lourdes Y. |date=2006 |edition=Second |publisher=Katha Publishing Co. |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-574-103-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC&pg=PA25 25] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |url-status=live }}</ref> Social identity changed, with the term ''Filipino'' encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to [[Spanish Filipino|Spaniards born in the Philippines]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |series=Politics in Asia |last2=Sidel |first2=John |editor-last1=Leifer |editor-first1=Michael |date=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-75421-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C&pg=PA71 71] |author-link2=John Sidel}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=David Joel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |title=The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place |date=2018 |series=Nations of the Modern World: Asia |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5 |edition=Fourth |at=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT74 The New Filipinos] |chapter=Chapter 3: A Singular and a Plural Folk |doi=10.4324/9780429494383 |access-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218075805/https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after [[Gomburza|three activist Catholic priests]] were executed on questionable grounds.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |title=The Propaganda Movement, 1880–1895: The Creation of a Filipino Consciousness, the Making of the Revolution |date=1997 |edition=Revised |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-209-2 |pages=8–9 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073519/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |title=Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850–1903 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-121-7 |pages=23–30 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073446/https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |url-status=live }}</ref> This inspired the [[Propaganda Movement]], organized by [[Marcelo H. del Pilar]], [[José Rizal]], [[Graciano López Jaena]], and [[Mariano Ponce]], which advocated political reform in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Acibo |first1=Libert Amorganda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |title=Jose P. Rizal: His Life, Works, and Role in the Philippine Revolution |last2=Galicano-Adanza |first2=Estela |date=1995 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-1837-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC&pg=PA46 46–47] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144211/https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |url-status=live }}</ref> Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Owen |editor-first1=Norman G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC |title=The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History |date=January 1, 2005 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-2841-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC&pg=PA156 156] |language=en}}</ref> Attempts at reform met with resistance; [[Andrés Bonifacio]] founded the [[Katipunan]] secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA137|name=137}}}} The Katipunan [[Cry of Pugad Lawin]] began the [[Philippine Revolution]] in 1896.<ref>{{cite book |last=Borromeo-Buehler |first=Soledad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |title=The Cry of Balintawak: A Contrived Controversy: A Textual Analysis with Appended Documents |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-278-8 |page=7 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073342/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |url-status=live }}</ref> Internal disputes led to the [[Tejeros Convention]], at which Bonifacio lost his position and [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] was elected the new leader of the revolution.<ref name="Duka-2008">{{cite book |last=Duka |first=Cecilio D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |title=Struggle for Freedom: A Textbook on Philippine History |date=2008 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-5045-0 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923144103/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA147|name=145–147}}}} The 1897 [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]] resulted in the [[Hong Kong Junta]] government in exile. The [[Spanish–American War]] began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Spain on June 12, 1898.<ref name="Abinales-2022">{{cite book |last=Abinales |first=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |title=Modern Philippines |series=Understanding Modern Nations |date=July 8, 2022 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-6005-8 |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144210/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|name=26}}}} In December 1898, the islands were [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|ceded by Spain]] to the United States with [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]] after the Spanish–American War.<ref>{{cite book |last=Draper |first=Andrew Sloan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |title=The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government |date=1899 |publisher=[[Silver Burdett]] |location=New York |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA170 170–172] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=9764656 |author-link1=Andrew S. Draper |access-date=February 10, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172545/https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fantina |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC |title=Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 |date=2006 |publisher=Algora Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-87586-454-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC&pg=PA83 83]}}</ref> The [[First Philippine Republic]] was promulgated on January 21, 1899.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Starr |editor-first1=J. Barton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |title=The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia |date=September 1988 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |location=Hong Kong, China |isbn=978-962-209-201-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260] |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124609/https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Lack of recognition by the United States led to an [[Battle of Manila (1899)|outbreak of hostilities]] that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic,{{efn|This is a summary, omitting significant detail. For more detail, see {{section link|Schurman Commission|Survey visit to the Philippines}}.}} escalated into the [[Philippine–American War]].<ref name=Nation18990504>{{cite magazine|title=The week|magazine=The Nation|volume=68|issue=1766|page=323|date=May 4, 1899|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QUDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA323}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Linn |first=Brian McAllister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |title=The Philippine War, 1899–1902 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |year=2000 |location=Lawrence, Kans. |isbn=978-0-7006-1225-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ&pg=PA75 75–76] |author-link=Brian McAllister Linn |access-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073827/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kalaw|first=Maximo Manguiat|title=The Development of Philippine politics (1872–1920)|publisher=Oriental Commercial Company, Inc.|location=Manila|year=1927|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afj2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext|pages=199–200|access-date=December 3, 2023|archive-date=December 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214233312/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFJ2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||last=Paterno|first=Pedro Alejandro|author-link=Pedro Paterno|title=Pedro Paterno's Proclamation of War|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=MSC Institute of Technology, Inc.|location=San Pablo City, Philippines|date=June 2, 1899|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pa990602.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref> [[File:Gregorio del Pilar and his troops, around 1898.jpg|thumb|Filipino General [[Gregorio del Pilar]] and his troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the [[Philippine-American War]]]] The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease.<ref name="Tucker-2009">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first1=Spencer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |title=Philippine-American War |date=May 20, 2009 |edition=Illustrated |volume=I: A–L |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-951-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA478 478] |language=en |editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker |access-date=July 25, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923151624/https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |url-status=live }}</ref> Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to [[List of concentration and internment camps#Philippines|concentration camps]], where thousands died.<ref>{{cite book |last=Briley |first=Ron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |title=Talking American History: An Informal Narrative History of the United States |publisher=Sunstone Press |year=2020 |location=Santa Fe, N.M. |isbn=978-1-63293-288-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 247] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172542/https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Cocks |first1=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era |series=Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Historical Eras |volume=12 |title=Philippine-American War (1899–1902) |last2=Holloran |first2=Peter C. |last3=Lessoff |first3=Alan |date=March 13, 2009 |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-6293-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC&pg=PA332 332] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172543/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |url-status=live }}</ref> After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|American civilian government]] was established with the [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gates |first=John M. |title=The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare |date=November 2002 |chapter=Chapter 3: The Pacification of the Philippines |access-date=February 20, 2010 |chapter-url=http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805061319/http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-date=August 5, 2010 |via=[[College of Wooster]] |oclc=49327571}}</ref> American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted [[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|extension of the Philippine Republic]],<ref name="Duka-2008" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA200|name=200–202}}}}<ref name="Tucker-2009" /> [[Kiram–Bates Treaty|securing the Sultanate of Sulu]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Abanes |first=Menandro Sarion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |title=Ethno-religious Identification and Intergroup Contact Avoidance: An Empirical Study on Christian-Muslim Relations in the Philippines |series=Nijmegen Studies in Development and Cultural Change |date=2014 |publisher=[[LIT Verlag|LIT Verlag Münster]] |location=Zürich, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-643-90580-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-3052-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA120 120] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073948/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |url-status=live }}</ref> establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aguilar-Cariño |first1=Ma. Luisa |year=1994 |title=The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |issn=0031-7837 |pages=194–209 |jstor=42633435}}</ref> and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wolff |editor-first1=Stefan |editor-last2=Özkanca |editor-first2=Oya Dursun- |title=External Interventions in Civil Wars: The Role and Impact of Regional and International Organisations |date=March 16, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-91142-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |language=en |editor-link1=Stefan Wolff |access-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323163243/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Rogers |editor-first1=Mark M. |editor-last2=Bamat |editor-first2=Tom |editor-last3=Ideh |editor-first3=Julie |title=Pursuing Just Peace: An Overview and Case Studies for Faith-Based Peacebuilders |date=March 24, 2008 |publisher=[[Catholic Relief Services]] |location=Baltimore, Md. |isbn=978-1-61492-030-4 |page=119 |url=https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208080127/https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |archive-date=February 8, 2009}}</ref> [[File:Manuel Quezon First Inauguration.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Inauguration of Manuel L. Quezon as President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on Nov 15, 1935]] Cultural developments strengthened a national identity,<ref name="Armes-1987">{{cite book |last=Armes |first=Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC |title=Third World Film Making and the West |date=July 29, 1987 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn=978-0-520-90801-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC&pg=PA152 152] |language=en |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073829/https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Tofighian-2006">{{Cite thesis |last=Tofighian |first=Nadi |date=2006 |title=The role of Jose Nepomuceno in the Philippine society: What language did his silent films speak? |url=http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309052902/http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01 |archive-date=March 9, 2012 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |website=[[DiVA (open archive)|DiVA portal]] |publisher=[[Stockholm University]] |oclc=1235074310}}</ref>{{rp|page=12}} and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] began to take precedence over other local languages.<ref name="Abinales-2005" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA121|name=121}}}} Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the [[Taft Commission]];<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} the 1934 [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] granted a ten-year transition to independence through the creation of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] the following year,<ref name="Nadeau-2020">{{cite book |last1=Nadeau |first1=Kathleen |title=The History of the Philippines |series=The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations |date=April 3, 2020 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-7359-1 |page=76 |edition=Second |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |access-date=October 12, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=October 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |url-status=live }}</ref> with [[Manuel L. Quezon|Manuel Quezon]] president and [[Sergio Osmeña]] vice president.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Lai To |editor-first1=Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ |title=Regional Community Building in East Asia: Countries in Focus |series=Politics in Asia |editor-last2=Othman |editor-first2=Zarina |date=September 1, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-317-26556-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 145] |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172544/https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character.<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} [[Filipino language|Filipino]] (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language,<ref name="Thompson-2003">{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Roger M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ |title=Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching From Multiple Perspectives |series=Varieties of English Around the World |date=October 16, 2003 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-272-9607-8 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118092514/https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1h9oF9rj-MC&pg=PA27|name=27–29}}}} [[1937 Philippine women's suffrage plebiscite|women's suffrage was introduced]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gonzales |first=Cathrine |date=April 30, 2020 |title=Celebrating 83 years of women's suffrage in the Philippines |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506193300/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |archive-date=May 6, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA416|name=416}}}} and [[Land reform in the Philippines|land reform]] was considered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kwiatkowski |first=Lynn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ |title=Struggling With Development: The Politics of Hunger and Gender in the Philippines |date=May 20, 2019 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-429-96562-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 41] |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073947/https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Holden |first1=William N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ |title=Mining and Natural Hazard Vulnerability in the Philippines: Digging to Development or Digging to Disaster? |series=Anthem Environmental Studies |last2=Jacobson |first2=R. Daniel |date=February 15, 2012 |publisher=Anthem Press |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-84331-396-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 229] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144208/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Riedinger |first=Jeffrey M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC |title=Agrarian Reform in the Philippines: Democratic Transitions and Redistributive Reform |date=1995 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, Calif. |isbn=978-0-8047-2530-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC&pg=PA87 87] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=April 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422235850/https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|alt=Douglas MacArthur, Sergio Osmeña, and Osmeña's staff wading ashore in knee-deep water|[[General Douglas MacArthur]] and [[Sergio Osmeña]] ''(left)'' coming ashore during the [[Battle of Leyte]] on October 20, 1944|left]]The [[Empire of Japan]] invaded the Philippines in December 1941 [[Military history of the Philippines during World War II|during World War II]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Chamberlain |first=Sharon W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ |title=A Reckoning: Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals |series=New Perspectives in Southeast Asian Studies |date=March 5, 2019 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |location=Madison, Wis. |isbn=978-0-299-31860-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11] |access-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073830/https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Second Philippine Republic]] was established as a [[puppet state]] governed by [[Jose P. Laurel]].<ref>{{cite report|last1=Rankin |first1=Karl L. |author-link=Karl L. Rankin |date=November 25, 1943 |title=Document 984 |series=Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1943, The British Commonwealth, Eastern Europe, the Far East |volume=III |chapter=Introduction |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629000417/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |access-date=February 16, 2021 |publisher=[[Office of the Historian]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |date=July 6, 2017 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-5381-0395-1 |edition=Second |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 160] |access-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073954/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Beginning in 1942, the [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines]] was [[Philippine resistance against Japan|opposed]] by large-scale [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines#Resistance|underground guerrilla activity]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=The Guerrilla War |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128153210/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-date=January 28, 2017 |access-date=February 24, 2011 |website=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Minor |first=Colin |date=March 4, 2019 |title=Filipino Guerilla Resistance to Japanese Invasion in World War II |url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy |journal=Legacy |volume=15 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320025106/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy |archive-date=March 20, 2020 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |via=[[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Sandler |editor-first1=Stanley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC |encyclopedia=World War II in the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |title=Philippines, Anti-Japanese Guerrillas in |date=2001 |publisher=[[Garland Publishing]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8153-1883-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC&pg=PA819 819–825] |access-date=February 18, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073835/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Japanese war crimes|Atrocities and war crimes]] were committed during the war, including the [[Bataan Death March]] and the [[Manila massacre]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones |first=Jeffrey Frank |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf |title=Japanese War Crimes and Related Topics: A Guide to Records at the National Archives |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gx9JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1031 1031–1037] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414092157/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf |archive-date=April 14, 2010 |via=[[ibiblio]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Li |editor-first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC |title=Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn=978-1-4128-2683-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC&pg=PA250 250] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002122006/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Japanese_War_Crimes/2J0ZqRZw-QQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22japanese+atrocities&pg=PA250 |archive-date=October 2, 2020}}</ref> Allied troops [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|defeated the Japanese]] in 1945, and over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |title=World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |location=Westport, Conn. |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-313-31395-0 |author-link=Gordon L. Rottman |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg=PA318 318] |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=October 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012205757/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Del Gallego |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ |title=The Liberation of Manila: 28 Days of Carnage, February–March 1945 |date=July 17, 2020 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=978-1-4766-3597-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144212/https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a [[member states of the United Nations|founding member]] of the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Founding Member States |url=https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091121135646/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-date=November 21, 2009 |publisher=[[United Nations]]}}</ref><ref name="Buhler-2001">{{cite book |last=Bühler |first=Konrad G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C |title=State Succession and Membership in International Organizations: Legal Theories versus Political Pragmatism |series=Legal Aspects of International Organization |date=February 8, 2001 |publisher=[[Kluwer Law International]] |location=The Hague, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-411-1553-9 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=April 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405131023/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}} On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of [[Manuel Roxas]], the country's independence was recognized by the United States with the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]].<ref name="Buhler-2001" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America; 1776–1949 |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |location=United States |volume=II |year= 1974 |pages=3–6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824161243/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf |archive-date=August 24, 2021}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page