Nelson Mandela

== Revolutionary activity and imprisonment ==

=== Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949 ===
Mandela began studying law at the [[University of the Witwatersrand]], where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish and Indian students, among them [[Joe Slovo]] and [[Ruth First]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=33–34|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=127–131|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=64–65|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=34–35}} Becoming increasingly politicised, Mandela marched in August 1943 in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122–123|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=44|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=37}} Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=136|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=53|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=36, 43}} In 1943, Mandela met [[Anton Lembede]], an ANC member affiliated with the "Africanist" branch of [[African nationalism]], which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=137–139|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=33–34|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=53|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=42–43|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=38–39}} Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=31|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=34–35|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=142–143|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=54}} Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC president [[Alfred Bitini Xuma]] on the subject at his home in [[Sophiatown]]; the [[African National Congress Youth League]] (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the [[Bantu Men's Social Centre]], with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=28–29|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=139–143|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=35|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=52–56|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=44–46|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=39–41}}

[[File:Mandela e Evelyn 1944.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela and Evelyn in July 1944 at Walter and Albertina Sisulu's wedding party in the Bantu Men's Social Centre{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=inset photographs}}]]

At Sisulu's house, Mandela met [[Evelyn Mase]], a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of Orlando in early 1946.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=24|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=39–40|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=144, 148–149|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=24, 25|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=59–62|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=47|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=36}} Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of [[meningitis]] nine months later.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=40–41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=149, 152|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=29|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=60–64|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=40|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=150, 210|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=30|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=67|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=151|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=64|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=48–49}}

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate [[A.P. Mda|Peter Mda]], who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=36|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=43|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=153–154|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=66|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=48}} Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=154|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=42}} In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province]] branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=154–157|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=37|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=66|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=49}}

In the [[1948 South African general election|South African general election in 1948]], in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated [[Herenigde Nasionale Party]] under [[Daniel François Malan]] took power, soon uniting with the [[Afrikaner Party]] to form the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]. Openly [[Racialism (Racial categorization)|racialist]], the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new [[apartheid legislation]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=35|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=159–162|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=41–42|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=70–72|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=76–78|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=51–52}} Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating [[direct action]] against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of no confidence]], replaced by [[James Moroka]] and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo and Godfrey Pitje.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=36–37|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=162–165|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=44|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=72–73|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=78–79|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=53–55}} Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=165}} Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=68–70|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=35}}

=== Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954 ===
[[File:Flag of the African National Congress.svg|thumb|The ANC's tricolour flag; black for the people, green for the land, and gold for the resources of Africa{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=26}}]]

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=168|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=44|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=55–56}} and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=176|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=47|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=78|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=88|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=63–64}} In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian and communist activists to call a [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] [[general strike]] in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the [[Suppression of Communism Act, 1950]], affecting the actions of all protest groups.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=38–40|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=48–49|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=165–167|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=74–75|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=81–83|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=61–62}} At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=176|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=78|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=63–64}}

Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=42|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=55|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=94}} Influenced by friends like [[Moses Kotane]] and by the [[Soviet Union]]'s support for [[wars of national liberation]], his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by [[Karl Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], eventually embracing the [[Marxist philosophy]] of [[dialectical materialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=177–172|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=45, 47|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=75–76|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=87|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=64–65}} Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a [[classless society]] which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=172}} In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=165|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=53|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=77|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=92}} although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=170|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=94|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=103}}

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint [[Defiance Campaign]] against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of [[nonviolent resistance]] influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=44–46|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=56–58|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=182–183|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=77, 80|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=88–89|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=66–67}} At a [[Durban]] rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=183–188|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=52, 53|32a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=81–83|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=88–89|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=69}} These events established Mandela as one of the best-known black political figures in South Africa.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=47}} With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the [[Public Safety Act, 1953]] to permit [[martial law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=188–192|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=68}} In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC president [[J. B. Marks]] from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=194–195|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=85|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=72–73}}

[[File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mandela House|Mandela's former home]] in the Johannesburg township of [[Soweto]]]]

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the [[Suppression of Communism Act]] and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu and [[Yusuf Dadoo]]—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' [[hard labour]] was [[Suspended sentence|suspended]] for two years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=50–51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=195–198|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=83–84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=92|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=71–72}} In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=64|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=199–200, 204|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=86|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=73}} In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a [[Clandestine cell system|cell structure]] with a more centralised leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=58–59|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=60|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=205–207, 231|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=58|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=107–108|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=116–117|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=81–82, 84–85}}

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=209–210|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=87|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=95|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=7}} In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, [[Mandela and Tambo]], operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved black people, often dealing with cases of [[police brutality]]. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the [[Group Areas Act]]; as a result, their clientele dwindled.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=54–57|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=61|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=210–216|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=73|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=87–93|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=95–101|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=77–80}} As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the black community.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=28–29, 75}} Although a second daughter, [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe Phumia]], was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member [[Lillian Ngoyi]] and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=103–104|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=95–99, 105–106}} Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=293–294|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=104–105|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=98–99, 105–106|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=76–77}}

=== Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961 ===
{{Main|Treason Trial}}
{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know:<br />That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.
| salign = right
| source = —&thinsp;Opening words of the [[Freedom Charter]]{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=66|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=92}}
}}

After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=218–233, 234–236|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=59–60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=114–117|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=120–123|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=82–84}} On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for [[guerrilla warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=226–227|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=108–109|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=118|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=84}} With the involvement of the [[South African Indian Congress]], the Coloured People's Congress, the [[South African Congress of Trade Unions]] and the [[South African Congress of Democrats|Congress of Democrats]], the ANC planned a [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]], calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by [[Rusty Bernstein]], calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the [[nationalisation]] of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in [[Kliptown]], which was forcibly closed down by police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=64–67|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=71–75|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=243–249|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=65–66|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=129–133|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=118–120, 125–128|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=87–95}} The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as "an inspiration to the people of South Africa".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=134}}

Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the [[Bantu Authorities Act, 1951]] with local Xhosa chiefs, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to [[Cape Town]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=253–274|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=130–132|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=96–99}} In March 1956, he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=275|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=101–102}} Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations and fought for custody of their children.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=143–144|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=100–102|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=296|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=102–104|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, [[Winnie Madikizela]], whom he married in [[Bizana, Eastern Cape|Bizana]] in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=75–77|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=144–149|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=104, 132–145|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=110–113}} Together they had two children: [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], born in February 1959, and [[Zindzi Mandela-Hlongwane|Zindziswa]] (1960–2020).{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=165, 186}}

[[File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg|thumb|left|An apartheid sign; apartheid legislation impacted all areas of life.]]

In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive and accused of "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=68, 71–72|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=83|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=283–292|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=136–141|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=163–164|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=103–106}} The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer [[Vernon Berrangé]], and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, [[Oswald Pirow]] was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the [[Gauteng Division|Transvaal Supreme Court]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=299–305|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=142|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=167–168|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=116–117}} The formal [[Treason Trial]] began in [[Pretoria]] in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=331–334|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=162, 165|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=167|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=122–123}}

In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the [[Pan-Africanist Congress]] (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature" and "naïve".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=79|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=90–92, 141–143|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=327–330|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=167–168|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=171–173|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=117–122}} Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned [[Pass laws|the passes that they were legally obliged to carry]]. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the [[Sharpeville massacre]]. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=83–84|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=144–147|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=342–346|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=81–82|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=167–170|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=173–175|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=130–131}}

Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring martial law and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=85–86|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=347–357|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=172–175|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=175|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=132–133}} Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=357–364|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=176, 184|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=177|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=134–135}} Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near [[Pietermaritzburg]], [[Natal Province|Natal]], in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=98|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=373–374|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=83–84|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=187–188|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=183–185|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=140–143}} On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=94|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=151|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=377–380|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=188–189|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6p=178|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=143}}

=== MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62 ===
[[File:liliesleaf hut1.jpg|thumb|right|Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid]]
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to [[Emma Orczy]]'s 1905 novel ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]''—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=99|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=283–287|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=192–193|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=186–188, 193|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=144–146, 154}} Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|Poqo]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=289–291|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=188–189|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=147–149}} He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader [[Albert Luthuli]]—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=393–396|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=199–200|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=206–210|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=150–151}}

Inspired by the actions of [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] in the [[Cuban Revolution]], in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu and Slovo co-founded [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and [[Che Guevara]] as well as from the military theorist [[Carl von Clausewitz]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–398|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=197–198, 200–201|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=209–214|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=151–154}} Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=209–210|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=151}} Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in [[Berea, Gauteng|Berea]], Mandela moved to the communist-owned [[Liliesleaf Farm]] in [[Rivonia]], there joined by [[Raymond Mhlaba]], Slovo and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–409|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=92–93|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=201–204|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=191, 222–229|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=154–156}} Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s.{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=1}}<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |title=SACP statement on the passing away of Madiba |website=South African Communist Party |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223354/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news |last=Marrian |first=Natasha |title=SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |access-date=7 December 2013 |newspaper=Business Day|location=South Africa|date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306232040/http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=We of Umkhonto have always sought to achieve liberation without bloodshed and civil clash. Even at this late hour, we hope that our first actions will awaken everyone to a realization of the dangerous situation to which Nationalist policy is leading. We hope that we will bring the Government and its supporters to their senses before it is too late so that both government and its policies can be changed before matters reach the desperate stage of civil war.|salign=right |source=—&thinsp;Statement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=207}}}}

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=108|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=171|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=411–412|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=90|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=204}} Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on [[Day of the Vow|Dingane's Day]] (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=110|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=170|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=413–415|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=206|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=239–246|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=158–159}}

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the [[Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa]] (PAFMECSA) in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=111|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=171–172, 176|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=418–425|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=251–254|6a1=Benneyworth|6y=2011|6p=81|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=160–162}} Leaving South Africa in secret via [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], on his way Mandela visited [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and met with its president, [[Julius Nyerere]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=173–175|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=97|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=209|4a1=Benneyworth|4y=2011|4pp=81, 84}} Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]], and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=176–177, 180|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=427–432|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=255–256|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=163–165}} After the symposium, he travelled to [[Cairo]], Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and in April 1962 he went to Morocco where asked El Khatib to meet the king to ask him to give him £5,000. The next day he got the £5,000 along with some weapons and training to Mandela's soldier, and then went to [[Tunis]], Tunisia, where President [[Habib Bourguiba]] gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian president [[William Tubman]] and Guinean president [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=185–194|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=432–440|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=210|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=256–259|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=165–167}} He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters and prominent politicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=196–197|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=441–443|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=210–211|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=259–261|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=167–169}} Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=443–445|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=100|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=211|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=261–262|5a1=Benneyworth|5y=2011|5pp=91–93|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=169–170}}

=== Imprisonment ===

==== Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964 ====
{{main|Rivonia Trial}}

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist [[Cecil Williams (anti-apartheid activist)|Cecil Williams]] near [[Howick, KwaZulu-Natal|Howick]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=116–117|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=201–202|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=435–435|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=215–216|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=275–276|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=170–172}} Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=278–279|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=172}} In later years, [[Donald Rickard]], a former American diplomat, revealed that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], which feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=216–217|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=172}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Ex-CIA spy admits tip led to Nelson Mandela's long imprisonment |date=15 May 2016 |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |access-date=20 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516104658/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |archive-date=16 May 2016 }}</ref> Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside the court.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=456–459|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=172–173}} Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a [[Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB) degree from the [[University of London International Programmes]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=463–465|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=292–293|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=173–174}} His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional ''[[kaross]]'', refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "[[Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=120–134|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=210–213|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=468–482|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=104–106|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=218–426|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=174–176}}

{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to see realised. But if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
| salign = right
| source = —&thinsp;Mandela's [[Rivonia Trial Speech]], 1964{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=159|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=258|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=193|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6p=74}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Nelson Mandela |title=I am prepared to die |url=http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |work=Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory |publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201092557/http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

On 11 July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those that they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The [[Rivonia Trial]] began at [[Supreme Court of South Africa|Pretoria Supreme Court]] in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was [[Percy Yutar]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=134–137|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=223–226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=27–32|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=108–109|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=242–250|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=292–295|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=183–186|8a1=Broun|8y=2012|8pp=6–10, 19–20}} Judge [[Quartus de Wet]] soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=138–139|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=33–42|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252–254, 256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=186–190|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=43–49}}

Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=160|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=232–233|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=42–44|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252, 259}} They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour "[[I Am Prepared to Die]]" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's "[[History Will Absolve Me]]"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=140|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=43–57|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=258–265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=298–302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=191–194|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=68–75}} The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and [[World Peace Council]], while the [[University of London Union]] voted Mandela to its presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=268|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=303|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=194–195|5a1=Broun|5y=2012|5pp=102–104, 107}} On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the [[death sentence]] to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to [[life imprisonment]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=161, 163|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=63–68|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=268–272|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=306|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=196–197|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=116–128}}

==== Robben Island: 1964–1982 ====
In 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on [[Robben Island]], remaining there for the next 18 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=165|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=262|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=75–78|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=307–308|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=204}} Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring {{convert|8|ft|m}} by {{convert|7|ft|m}}, with a straw mat on which to sleep.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=279|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=205}} Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=166, 182|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=266|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=82–84, 108–116|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=281–283, 290–291|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=206–207}} At night, he worked on his LLB degree, which he was obtaining from the [[University of London]] through a correspondence course with [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]], but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in [[solitary confinement]] on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=174|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2p=126|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=299|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=205, 258}} He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=102–108|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=283|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=205}}

[[File:RobbenIslandSteinbruchA.JPG|thumb|left|Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other prisoners were forced to carry out hard labour]]

The political prisoners took part in work and [[hunger strike]]s—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=175|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=83, 90, 136–138|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=124|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=284, 296–298}} ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, [[Govan Mbeki]] and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group, named Ulundi, that represented all political prisoners (including [[Eddie Daniels (political activist)|Eddie Daniels]]) on the island, through which he forged links with PAC and [[Yu Chi Chan Club]] members.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=298–299|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=210–214}} Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=130–131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=292–295|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=236–241, 288–294}}

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301, 313|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=232}} He also studied [[Afrikaans]], hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=295, 299–301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=229}} Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative [[Helen Suzman]] of the [[Progressive Party (South Africa)|Progressive Party]], who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301–302|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=221}} In September 1970, he met [[British Labour Party]] politician [[Denis Healey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=337|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=222}} South African Minister of Justice [[Jimmy Kruger]] visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=334|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=241}} His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=142, 145|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=303–304|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=246–247}} His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in [[Brandfort]] and remained unable to see him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=192–194|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=306–307|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=287–288, 304–310|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=248–254, 302}}

From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=222, 235}} In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the [[South African Bureau of State Security]] (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=207–208|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=231}} In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=127–128|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=308–310|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=223–225}} He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=128–129|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=226–227}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Physiological needs.jpg
| width1 = 190
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Robben Island fængslet Sektion B.jpg
| width2 = 205
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the prison yard on Robben Island, now a [[National heritage sites (South Africa)|national]] and [[World Heritage Site]]. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture, including a bed from around 1973.{{sfn|Hutton|1994|p=60}}
}}

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=228}} which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Desmond Tutu]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=314–315}} That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=268|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=139|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=317|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=242–243}} Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=285–286}}

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by [[Steve Biko]] and the [[Black Consciousness Movement]] (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but, following the [[Soweto uprising]] of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=186–188|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=304–306|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=324–327|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=259–276}} Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=135|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=327–328|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=277–283|4a1=Soudien|4y=2015|4pp=363–364}} Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=296}} He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award|Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding]] in India in 1979, and the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]], Scotland in 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=313, 314|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=315–316}} In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist [[Percy Qoboza]], sparking an international campaign that led the [[UN Security Council]] to call for his release.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=155|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=338–339|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=319–320}} Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its [[Cold War]] allies US president [[Ronald Reagan]] and British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism and supported its suppression.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=24|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=321}}

==== Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988 ====
In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to [[Pollsmoor Prison]] in [[Tokai, Cape Town]], along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, [[Ahmed Kathrada]] and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=218|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=147–149|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=340|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=324–325}} Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=148|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=346–347|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=324–325}} Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a [[roof garden]];{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=347|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=326}} he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now being permitted 52 letters a year.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=329}} He was appointed patron of the multi-racial [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), founded to combat [[South African Constitution of 1983|reforms]] implemented by South African president [[P. W. Botha]]. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=224|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2pp=20, 23, 26–27|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=341–346|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=335–336}}

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Mandela erected on London's [[South Bank]] by the [[Greater London Council]] administration of [[Ken Livingstone]] in 1985]]

The early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=247–248|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=152–153, 156|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=249–256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=338–342}} Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=210|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=340}} Botha offered him, in February 1985, a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=237–238|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=315–318|3a1=Barber|3y=2004|3p=36|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=157|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=351–352|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=330–332}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html|title=Mandela's response to being offered freedom|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080622004124/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 22 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=254|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=157–158|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=358|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=343–345}} He was met by an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=359–360|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=347–355}} The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=355}} The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] nationalist movement [[Inkatha Freedom Party|Inkatha]], which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=354–357}} Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice [[Kobie Coetsee]] in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on [[majority rule]]. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=160|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=362–368|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=363–378}}

Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|a tribute concert]] at London's [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]] that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=35|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=368}} Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the "Mandela United Football Club", which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=20–23|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=183–184|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=371–383|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=373–380}}

==== Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990 ====
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-0920-016, Berlin, Weltgewerkschaftskongress, Probe des Festprogramms.jpg|thumb|right|"Free Mandela" protest in [[East Berlin]], 1986]]

Recovering from [[tuberculosis]] exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell,{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=318–319|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=369|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=369–370}} Mandela was moved to [[Victor Verster Prison]], near [[Paarl]], in December 1988. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=320|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=369–370|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=381}} While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=384–385, 392–393}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |title=Mandela Moved to House at Prison Farm |author=Christopher S. Wren |date=8 December 1988 |work=The New York Times |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-date=1 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501172541/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he retained the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by [[F. W. de Klerk]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=62|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=388|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=386}} In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=161–162|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=387–388|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=390–392}} Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=41–42|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=392–397}} Following the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=567|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=1|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=165–166|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=369–397|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=399–402}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |title=1990: Freedom for Nelson Mandela |date=11 February 1990 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=23 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023134531/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=403}}

Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=167|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=399–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=407}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |title=Mandela free after 27 years |last=Ormond |first=Roger |date=12 February 1990 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 October 2008 |location=London |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214051055/http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Driven to [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]] through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=2|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=400–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=408–409}}<ref>The text of Mandela's speech can be found at {{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html|title=Nelson Mandela's address to Rally in Cape Town on his Release from Prison|date=11 February 1990|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080728021713/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 28 July 2008}}</ref> Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=403–405|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=409–410}}

=== End of apartheid ===
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}

==== Early negotiations: 1990–91 ====
[[File:Luthuli House.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Luthuli House]] in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991]]
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the [[Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa]] concert at Wembley Stadium.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=57|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=172|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=409–410|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=412–414}} Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President [[François Mitterrand]] in France, [[Pope John Paul II]] in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President [[George H. W. Bush]], addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the [[African American]] community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=58–59|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=415–418}} In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=410|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=420}} He met President [[R. Venkataraman]] in India, President [[Suharto]] in Indonesia, Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] in Malaysia, and Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=418–420}}

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the [[Groote Schuur Minute|Groot Schuur Minute]], in which the government lifted the state of emergency.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1,600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=439|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=428–429}} At the ANC's [[48th National Conference of the African National Congress|July 1991 national conference]] in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and wanted to build a task force for securing majority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}} At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}}

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at [[Shell House (Johannesburg)|Shell House]], Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=409|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with [[Dali Mpofu]], but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the [[International Defence and Aid Fund]] for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], but, in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of [[Houghton Estate|Houghton]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=429–436, 435–460|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "black-on-black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "[[Third Force (South Africa)|third force]]" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the [[Sebokeng]] massacre.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomaselli|1a2=Tomaselli|1y=2003|1p=6|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=174|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=418–424|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=436–442}} In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=425–426|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=444}}

==== CODESA talks: 1991–92 ====
The [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, Mandela took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=45, 69|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=174–175|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=443–446|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=456–459}} CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a [[federal system]] with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a [[unitary state|unitary system]] governed by majority rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|p=460}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=448, 452}}.</ref> Following the [[Boipatong massacre]] of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping force]] be stationed in South Africa to prevent "[[state terrorism]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=72–73|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=177|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=462–463|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=461–462}} Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=462–463}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=466–467}}.</ref>

[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|left|thumb|[[F. W. de Klerk|De Klerk]] and Mandela at the [[World Economic Forum]], 1992]]

Following the [[Bisho massacre]], in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the [[Ciskei Defence Force]] during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off; de Klerk reluctantly agreed.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=177–178|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=467–471|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=463–466}} The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year [[National unity government|coalition government of national unity]] and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=180|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=467–468}} The duo agreed on [[South African Constitution of 1993|an interim constitution]] based on a [[liberal democratic]] model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style [[bill of rights]]; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own [[premier]] and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for [[federalism]] and Mandela's for unitary government.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=489–491|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=472}}

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the {{Lang|af|[[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging]]|italic=no}} (AWB)—[[Storming of Kempton Park World Trade Centre|attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=449–450, 488|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=466, 470–471}} Following the murder of ANC activist [[Chris Hani]], Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=180–181|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=476–480|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=468–469}} In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the United States, independently meeting President [[Bill Clinton]], and each receiving the [[Liberty Medal]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=471}} Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} Influenced by [[Thabo Mbeki]], Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and he played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 [[World Economic Forum]] in Switzerland.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=182|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=497|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=434–445, 473}}

==== General election: 1994 ====
{{Main|1994 South African general election}}

[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mandela casting his vote in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 election]]]]

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=495|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=467–477}} The ANC campaigned on a [[Reconstruction and Development Programme]] (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=76–77|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=495–496|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=478}} With the exception of the ''[[Weekly Mail]]'' and the ''[[New Nation]]'', South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=479}} Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|pp=479–480}} He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=188|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=477–478|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=484}}

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the [[Bophuthatswana conflict (1994)|conflict in Bophuthatswana]] and the [[Shell House massacre]]—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, [[Pik Botha]] and [[Constand Viljoen]], persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=488–489, 504–510|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=480–489}} As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=500–501|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=488}} The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=82|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=512|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=491}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |title=Top 10 Political Prisoners |first=Glen |last=Levy |date=15 November 2010 |magazine=Time |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=3 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403214733/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mandela voted at the [[Ohlange High School]] in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=510–512|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=490}}