Kingdom of Aksum

===Decline===
[[File:Hijra Abyssinia (Rashid ad-Din).jpg|thumb|upright=1|14th century Islamic portrayal of the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]]]
Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of [[Islam]] in the early 7th century and the expansion of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early [[Muslim]]s from [[Mecca]] fleeing [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]]i persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey is known in [[Islamic history]] as the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]. However, in 630, [[Muhammad]] sent a naval expedition led by [[Umar]] against ''[[al-Habash]]'', the [[Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz]], igniting hostile relations.<ref>E. Cerulli, "Ethiopia's Relations with the Muslim World" in ''Cambridge History of Africa: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh century'', p. 575.</ref><ref>Trimingham, Spencer, ''Islam in Ethiopia'', p. 46.</ref> Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in the early 8th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref>

The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the [[Beja people|Beja]] nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the [[Beja kingdoms|Zanafaj]] entered the [[Eritrea]]n plateau through the valley of [[Gash-Barka]]. They overran and pillaged much of the [[Eritrea]]n highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the [[Red Sea]] ports was lost.<ref>Trimingham, Spencer, ''Islam in Ethiopia'', p. 49.</ref>

Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the [[Ethiopian Highlands|highlands]] for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and their tributaries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref> While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called [[Kubar]].<ref name="Munro-Hay57" /> The Arab writer [[Ya'qubi]] was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] or [[Angot]]; however, the exact location of this city is currently unknown.<ref>Taddesse Tamrat, ''Church and State in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 36.</ref>  [[Famine]] is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs [[Pope Jacob of Alexandria|James]] (819–830) and [[Pope Joseph I of Alexandria|Joseph]] (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains.<ref>Evetts, B.: "History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria", by Sawirus ibn al-Mukaffa', bishop of al-Ashmunien, Vol I, IV, Menas I to Joseph, PO X fasc. 5. pp 375-551, Paris, 1904</ref> Under the reign of [[Degna Djan]], during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of [[Angot]].<ref>Werner J. Lange, "History of the Southern Gonga (southwestern Ethiopia)", Steiner, 1982, p.  18</ref>

====Gudit's invasion====
{{main|Gudit}}
[[File:ET Axum asv2018-01 img45 Dungur.jpg|alt=Aksum Dongur Palace in Aksum|thumb|Ruins of [[Dungur]] (also known as Queen of Sheba's Palace) in Aksum, Tigray Region, Ethiopia]]
[[File:AXUM. Ezanas. Circa 330-360.jpg|thumb|upright|Coins of King [[Ezana]], 330–360 AD. ]]
Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "[[Gudit]]" defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. [[Gudit]] sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian [[iconoclasm]]. Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had a [[Jewish]] ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her [[dynasty]] lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by [[Mara Takla Haymanot]], resulting in the inception of the [[Agaw people|Agaw]]-led [[Zagwe dynasty]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&pg=PA49 |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=978-1-85065-393-6 |language=en}}</ref>

According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the [[Beta Israel]] king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from [[Semien Mountains]] and [[Lake Tana]] to orchestrate the pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in [[Tigray Province|Tigray]]. Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Childress |first=David Hatcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4pXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207 |title=Ark of God: The Incredible Power of the Ark of the Covenant |date=2015-10-27 |publisher=SCB Distributors |isbn=978-1-939149-60-2 |language=en}}</ref> Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly [[Dil Na'od]], while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in [[Shewa]], protected by Christians. He begged assistance from a [[African Greeks#Ancient Nubia|Nubian Greek]] ruler, King [[Moses Georgios of Makuria|Moses Georgios]], but remained unanswered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jewel |first=Lady |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vx_N_bEKNj8C&pg=PA246 |title=Keeper of the Ark (a Moses Trilogy): For the Love of Moses, for the Children of Moses, for the Children of God |date=August 2012 |publisher=WestBow Press |isbn=978-1-4497-5061-9 |language=en}}</ref> She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem.<ref name=":0" /> Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by [[Mara Takla Haymanot|Mara Tekla Haymanot]] in 1137 AD, who ushered in the formation of the [[Zagwe dynasty]] by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mekonnen |first=Yohannes K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0pZPp032c0C&pg=PA288 |title=Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture |date=April 2013 |publisher=New Africa Press |isbn=978-9987-16-024-2 |language=en}}</ref>

It is clear from contemporary sources that a female usurper did indeed rule the country at this time, and that her reign ended some time before 1003. After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, [[Yekuno Amlak]], who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern [[Solomonic dynasty]] around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum, [[Dil Na'od]]. It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at [[Lalibela]] and [[Yemrehana Krestos Church]] shows heavy Aksumite influence.<ref name="Munro-Hay57" />