Gothic language

===Consonants===
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
!&nbsp;
!colspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
!colspan=2|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2|[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2|[[Labialized velar consonant|Labiovelar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|colspan=2|''m'' {{IPA|[[/m/]]}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|colspan=2|''n'' {{IPA|[[/n/]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|''g, n'' {{IPA|[[/ŋ/]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
![[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| ''p'' {{IPA|[[/p/]]}}
| ''b'' {{IPA|[[/b/]]}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
| ''t'' {{IPA|[[/t/]]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[[/d/]]}}
|colspan=2| ''ddj'' {{IPA|/ɟː/}}?{{citation needed|date=August 2023|reason=See talk page.}}
| ''k'' {{IPA|[[/k/]]}}
| ''g'' {{IPA|[[/ɡ/]]}}
| ''q'' {{IPA|[[kʷ|/kʷ/]]}}
| ''gw'' {{IPA|[[ɡʷ|/ɡʷ/]]}}
|&nbsp;
|-
![[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| ''f'' {{IPA|[[/ɸ/]]}}
| ''b'' {{IPA|[[/β/]]}}
| ''þ'' {{IPA|[[/θ/]]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[[/ð/]]}}
| ''s'' {{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolar sibilant|/s/]]}}
| ''z'' {{IPA|[[/z/]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| ''g, h'' {{IPA|[[Voiceless velar fricative|/x/]]}}
| ''g'' {{IPA|[[/ɣ/]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| ''h'' {{IPA|[[/h/]]}}
|-
![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|''l'' {{IPA|[[/l/]]}}
|colspan=2|''j'' {{IPA|[[/j/]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| ''ƕ'' {{IPA|[[/ʍ/]]}}
| ''w'' {{IPA|[[/w/]]}}
|
|-
![[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|''r'' {{IPA|[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills|/r/]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|}

In general, Gothic consonants are [[final devoicing|devoiced]] at the ends of words. Gothic is rich in fricative consonants (although many of them may have been [[approximant]]s; it is hard to separate the two) derived by the processes described in [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]] and characteristic of [[Germanic languages]]. Gothic is unusual among Germanic languages in having a {{IPA|/z/}} phoneme, which has not become {{IPA|/r/}} through rhotacization. Furthermore, the doubling of written consonants between vowels suggests that Gothic made distinctions between long and short, or [[gemination|geminated]] consonants: ''atta'' {{IPA|[atːa]}} "dad", ''kunnan'' {{IPA|[kunːan]}} "to know" (Dutch ''kennen'', German ''kennen'' "to know", Icelandic ''kunna'').

====Stops====
* The voiceless stops {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are regularly noted by ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'' respectively: ''paska'' {{IPA|[paska]}} "Easter" (from the Greek {{lang|grc|πάσχα}}), ''tuggo'' {{IPA|[tuŋɡoː]}} "tongue", ''kalbo'' {{IPA|[kalboː]}} "calf".
* The letter ''q'' is probably a [[labialized voiceless velar plosive|voiceless labiovelar stop]], {{IPA|/kʷ/}}, comparable to the Latin ''qu'': ''qiman'' {{IPA|[kʷiman]}} "to come". In later Germanic languages, this phoneme has become either a [[consonant cluster]] {{IPA|/kw/}} of a [[voiceless velar stop]] + a [[labio-velar approximant]] (English ''qu'') or a simple voiceless velar stop {{IPA|/k/}} (English ''c, k'')
* The voiced stops {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} are noted by the letters ''b'', ''d'' and ''g''. Like the other Germanic languages, they occurred in word-initial position, when doubled and after a nasal. In addition, they apparently occurred after other consonants,: ''arbi'' {{IPA|[arbi]}} "inheritance", ''huzd'' {{IPA|[huzd]}} "treasure". (This conclusion is based on their behavior at the end of a word, in which they do not change into voiceless fricatives, unlike when they occur after a vowel.)
* There was probably also a [[voiced velar plosive|voiced labiovelar stop]], {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}}, which was written with the digraph ''gw''. It occurred after a nasal, e.g. ''saggws'' {{IPA|[saŋɡʷs]}} "song", or long as a regular outcome of Germanic *''ww'': ''triggws'' {{IPA|[triɡʷːs]}} "faithful" (English ''true'', German ''treu'', Icelandic ''tryggur''). The existence of a long [ɡʷː] separate from [ŋɡʷ], however, is not universally accepted.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Magnús |last=Snædal |title=Gothic <ggw> |journal=Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis |volume=128 |year=2011 |pages=145–154 |doi=10.2478/v10148-011-0019-z |url=https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/634550.pdf}}</ref>
* Similarly, the letters ''ddj'', which is the regular outcome of Germanic *''jj'', may represent a voiced palatal stop, {{IPA|/ɟː/}}:{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} ''waddjus'' {{IPA|[waɟːus]}} "wall" (Icelandic ''veggur''), ''twaddje'' {{IPA|[twaɟːeː]}} "two (genitive)" (Icelandic ''tveggja'').{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

====Fricatives====
* {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} are usually written ''s'' and ''z''. The latter corresponds to Germanic *''z'' (which has become ''r'' or silent in the other Germanic languages); at the end of a word, it is regularly devoiced to ''s''. E.g. ''saíhs'' {{IPA|[sɛhs]}} "six", ''máiza'' {{IPA|[mɛːza]}} "greater" (English ''more'', Dutch ''meer'', German ''mehr'', Icelandic ''meira'') versus ''máis'' {{IPA|[mɛːs]}} "more, rather".
* {{IPA|/ɸ/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}}, written ''f'' and ''þ'', are voiceless bilabial and voiceless dental fricatives respectively. It is likely that the relatively unstable sound {{IPA|/ɸ/}} became {{IPA|/f/}}. ''f'' and ''þ'' are also derived from ''b'' and ''d'' at the ends of words and then are devoiced and become fricatives: ''gif'' {{IPA|[ɡiɸ]}} "give (imperative)" (infinitive ''giban'': German ''geben''), ''miþ'' {{IPA|[miθ]}} "with" ([[Old English language|Old English]] ''mid'', [[Old Norse]] ''með'', Dutch ''met'', German ''mit''). The cluster {{IPA|/ɸl/}} became {{IPA|/θl/}} in some words but not others: ''þlauhs'' "flight" from Germanic ''*flugiz''; ''þliuhan'' "flee" from Germanic ''*fleuhaną'' (but see ''flōdus'' "river", ''flahta'' "braid"). This sound change is unique among Germanic languages.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}
* {{IPA|/h/}} is written as ''h'': ''haban'' "to have". It was probably pronounced {{IPA|[h]}} in word-final position and before a consonant as well (not {{IPA|[x]}}, since {{IPA|/ɡ/}} > {{IPA|[x]}} is written ''g'', not ''h''): ''jah'' {{IPA|[jah]}} "and" (Dutch, German, Scandinavian ''ja'' "yes").
* {{IPA|[x]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/ɡ/}} at the end of a word or before a voiceless consonant; it is always written ''g'': ''dags'' {{IPA|[daxs]}} "day" (German ''Tag''). In some borrowed Greek words is the special letter ''x'', which represents the Greek letter χ (''ch''): ''Xristus'' {{IPA|[xristus]}} "Christ" (Gk. {{lang|grc|Χριστός}}).
* {{IPA|[β]}}, {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ]}} are voiced fricative found only in between vowels. They are [[allophones]] of {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and are not distinguished from them in writing. {{IPA|[β]}} may have become {{IPA|/v/}}, a more stable labiodental form. In the study of Germanic languages, these phonemes are usually transcribed as ''ƀ'', ''đ'' and ''ǥ'' respectively: ''haban'' {{IPA|[haβan]}} "to have", ''þiuda'' {{IPA|[θiu̯ða]}} "people" (Dutch ''Diets'',  German ''Deutsch'', Icelandic ''þjóð'' > English ''Dutch''), ''áugo'' {{IPA|[ɔːɣoː]}} "eye" (English ''eye'', Dutch ''oog'', German ''Auge'', Icelandic ''auga''). When occurring after a vowel at the end of a word or before a voiceless consonant, these sounds become unvoiced {{IPA|[ɸ]}}, {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}, e.g. ''hláifs'' {{IPA|[hlɛːɸs]}} "loaf" but genitive ''hláibis'' {{IPA|[hlɛːβis]}} "of a loaf", plural ''hláibōs'' {{IPA|[hlɛːβoːs]}} "loaves".
* ''ƕ'' (also transcribed ''hw'') is the labiovelar equivalent of {{IPA|/x/}}, derived from Proto-Indo-European *kʷ. It was probably pronounced {{IPA|[ʍ]}} (a voiceless {{IPA|[w]}}), as ''wh'' is pronounced in certain dialects of English and in Scots: ''ƕan'' {{IPA|/ʍan/}} "when", ''ƕar'' {{IPA|/ʍar/}} "where", ''ƕeits'' {{IPA|[ʍiːts]}} "white".

====Sonorants====
Gothic has three nasal consonants, one of which is an allophone of the others, all found only in [[complementary distribution]] with them. Nasals in Gothic, like most other languages, are pronounced at the same [[point of articulation]] as the consonant that follows them ([[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]]). Therefore, clusters like {{IPA|[md]}} and {{IPA|[nb]}} are not possible.
* {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} are freely distributed and so can be found in any position in a syllable and form [[minimal pair]]s except in certain contexts where they are neutralized: {{IPA|/n/}} before a [[bilabial consonant]] becomes {{IPA|[m]}}, while {{IPA|/m/}} preceding a [[Dental consonant|dental stop]] becomes {{IPA|[n]}}, as per the principle of assimilation described in the previous paragraph. In front of a [[velar consonant|velar stop]], they both become {{IPA|[ŋ]}}. {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} are transcribed as ''n'' and ''m'', and, in writing, neutralisation is marked: ''sniumundo'' {{IPA|/sniu̯mundoː/}} ("quickly").
* {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is not a phoneme and cannot appear freely in Gothic. It is present where a nasal consonant is neutralised before a velar stop and is in a complementary distribution with {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}}. Following Greek conventions, it is normally written as ''g'' (sometimes ''n''): ''þagkjan'' {{IPA|[θaŋkjan]}} "to think", ''sigqan'' {{IPA|[siŋkʷan]}} "to sink" ~ ''þankeiþ'' {{IPA|[θaŋkiːθ]}} "thinks". The cluster ''ggw'' sometimes denotes {{IPA|[ŋɡʷ]}}, but sometimes {{IPA|[ɡʷː]}} (see above).
* {{IPA|/w/}} is transliterated as ''w'' before a vowel: ''weis'' {{IPA|[wiːs]}} ("we"), ''twái'' {{IPA|[twai]}} "two" (German ''zwei'').
* {{IPA|/j/}} is written as ''j'': ''jer'' {{IPA|[jeːr]}} "year", ''sakjo'' {{IPA|[sakjoː]}} "strife".
* {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/r/}} occur as in other European languages: ''laggs'' (possibly {{IPA|[laŋɡs]}}, {{IPA|[laŋks]}} or {{IPA|[laŋɡz]}}) "long", ''mel'' {{IPA|[meːl]}} "hour" (English ''meal'', Dutch ''maal'', German ''Mahl'', Icelandic ''mál'').  The exact pronunciation of {{IPA|/r/}} is unknown, but it is usually assumed to be a [[Trill consonant|trill]] {{IPA|[r]}} or a [[Flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}}): ''raíhts'' {{IPA|[rɛxts]}} "right", ''afar'' {{IPA|[afar]}} "after".
* {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/r/}} may occur either between two other consonants of lower sonority or word-finally after a consonant of lower sonority. It is probable that the sounds are pronounced partly or completely as [[syllabic consonant]]s in such circumstances (as in English "bottle" or "bottom"): ''tagl'' {{IPA|[taɣl̩]}} or {{IPA|[taɣl]}} "hair" (English ''tail'', Icelandic ''tagl''), ''máiþms'' {{IPA|[mɛːθm̩s]}} or {{IPA|[mɛːθms]}} "gift", ''táikns'' {{IPA|[tɛːkn̩s]}} or {{IPA|[tɛːkns]}} "sign" (English ''token'', Dutch ''teken'', German ''Zeichen'', Icelandic ''tákn'') and ''tagr'' {{IPA|[taɣr̩]}} or {{IPA|[taɣr]}} "tear (as in crying)".
Description	What you type	What you get
Italic	''Italic text''	Italic text
Bold	'''Bold text'''	Bold text
Bold & italic	'''''Bold & italic text'''''	*Bold & italic text*
Description	What you type	What you get
Reference	Page text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>	Page text.^[1]
Named reference	Page text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>	Page text.^[2]
Additional use of the same reference	Page text.<ref name="test" />	Page text.^[2]
Display references	<references />	↑ Link text, additional text. ↑ Link text