Giotto

==Mature works==
[[File:Giotto di Bondone 050 lighter.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Details of figures from the ''Raising of Drusiana'' in the Peruzzi Chapel]]
Giotto worked on other frescoes in Padua, some now lost, such as those that were in the [[Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua|Basilica of St. Anthony]]<ref>The remaining parts (''Stigmata of St. Francis'', ''Martyrdom of Franciscans at Ceuta'', ''Crucifixion'' and ''Heads of Prophets'') are most likely from assistants.</ref> and the [[Palazzo della Ragione, Padua|Palazzo della Ragione]].<ref>Finished in 1309 and mentioned in a text from 1350 by [[Giovanni da Nono]]. They had an astrological theme, inspired by the ''Lucidator'', a treatise famous in the 14th century.</ref>
Numerous painters from northern Italy were influenced by Giotto's work in Padua, including [[Guariento]], [[Giusto de' Menabuoi]], [[Jacopo Avanzi]], and [[Altichiero]].

From 1306 from 1311 Giotto was in Assisi, where he painted the frescoes in the transept area of the Lower Church of the Basilica of St. Francis, including ''The Life of Christ'', ''Franciscan Allegories'' and the Magdalene Chapel, drawing on stories from ''the Golden Legend'' and including the portrait of Bishop Teobaldo Pontano, who commissioned the work. Several assistants are mentioned, including Palerino di Guido. The style demonstrates developments from Giotto's work at Padua.<ref name=Sarel/>

In 1311, Giotto returned to Florence.  A document from 1313 about his furniture there shows that he had spent a period in Rome sometime beforehand. It is now thought that he produced the design for the famous [[Navicella (mosaic)|''Navicella'']] mosaic for the courtyard of the [[Old St. Peter's Basilica]] in 1310, commissioned by Cardinal Giacomo or [[Jacopo Stefaneschi]] and now lost to the Renaissance church except for some fragments and a [[Baroque]] reconstruction. According to the cardinal's [[necrology]], he also at least designed the ''[[Stefaneschi Triptych]]'' (c.&nbsp;1320), a double-sided altarpiece for St. Peter's, now in the [[Vatican Pinacoteca]]. It shows St Peter enthroned with saints on the front, and on the reverse, Christ is enthroned, framed with scenes of the [[martyrdom]] of Saints Peter and Paul. It is one of the few works by Giotto for which firm evidence of a commission exists.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gardner|first=Julian|year=1974|title=The Stefaneschi Altarpiece: A Reconsideration|journal=Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes|volume=37|pages=57–103|doi=10.2307/750834|jstor=750834|s2cid=195043668}}</ref> However, the style seems unlikely for either Giotto or his normal Florentine assistants so he may have had his design executed by an ''ad hoc'' workshop of Romans.<ref>White, 332, 343</ref>

The cardinal also commissioned Giotto to decorate the apse of St. Peter's Basilica with a cycle of frescoes that were destroyed during the 16th-century renovation. According to Vasari, Giotto remained in Rome for six years, subsequently receiving numerous commissions in Italy, and in the Papal seat at [[Avignon]], but some of the works are now recognized to be by other artists.

In Florence, where documents from 1314 to 1327 attest to his financial activities, Giotto painted an altarpiece, known as the ''[[Ognissanti Madonna]]'', which is now on display in the Uffizi, where it is exhibited beside Cimabue's ''Santa Trinita Madonna'' and [[Duccio]]'s ''[[Rucellai Madonna]]''.<ref name=Sarel/> The Ognissanti altarpiece is the only panel painting by Giotto that has been universally accepted by scholars, despite the fact that it is undocumented. It was painted for the church of the Ognissanti (all saints) in Florence, which was built by an obscure religious order, known as the Humiliati.<ref>''La 'Madonna d'Ognissanti' di Giotto restaurata'', Florence, 1992; Julia I. Miller and Laurie Taylor-Mitchell, "The ''Ognissanti Madonna'' and the Humiliati Order in Florence", in ''The Cambridge Companion to Giotto'', ed. Anne Derbes and Mark Sandona, Cambridge, 2004, 157–175.</ref> It is a large painting (325 x 204&nbsp;cm), and scholars are divided on whether it was made for the main altar of the church, where it would have been viewed primarily by the brothers of the order, or for the choir screen, where it would have been more easily seen by a lay audience.<ref>Julian Gardner, "Altars, Altarpieces and Art History: Legislation and Usage", in ''Italian Altarpieces, 1250–1500'', ed. Eve Borsook and Fiorella Gioffredi, Oxford, 1994, 5–39; Irene Hueck, "Le opere di Giotto per la chiesa di Ognissanti", in ''La 'Madonna d'Ognissanti' di Giotto restaurata'', Florence, 1992, 37–44.</ref>
[[File:Giotto, 1267 Around-1337 - Maestà - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Ognissanti Madonna]]'' ({{Circa|1310}}). Tempera on wood, {{convert|325|x|204|cm|in|lk=out|abbr=off}} [[Uffizi]], Florence]]

He also painted around the time the ''Dormition of the Virgin'', now in the Berlin {{Lang|de|[[Gemäldegalerie, Berlin|Gemäldegalerie]]|italic=no}}, and the ''Crucifix'' in the [[Church of Ognissanti, Florence|Church of Ognissanti]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11695349 Duncan Kennedy, ''Giotto's Ognissanti Crucifix brought back to life''], BBC News, 2010-11-05. Accessed 2010-11-07</ref>

[[File:Giotto, Lower Church Assisi, Nativity 01.jpg|thumb|The Nativity in the Lower Church, Assisi]]

===Peruzzi and Bardi Chapels at Santa Croce===
According to [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], Giotto painted chapels for four different Florentine families in the [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze|church of Santa Croce]], but he does not identify which chapels.<ref>Ghiberti, ''I commentari'', ed. O Morisani, Naples, 1947, 33.</ref> It is only with Vasari that the four chapels are identified: the [[Bardi family|Bardi]] Chapel (''Life of St. Francis''), the [[Peruzzi|Peruzzi Chapel]] (''Life of St. John the Baptist'' and ''St. John the Evangelist'', perhaps including a polyptych of ''Madonna with Saints'' now in the Museum of Art of [[Raleigh, North Carolina|Raleigh]], [[North Carolina]]) and the lost Giugni Chapel (''Stories of the Apostles'') and the Tosinghi Spinelli Chapel (''Stories of the Holy Virgin'').<ref>Giorgio Vasari, ''Le vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani'' ed. G. Milanesi, Florence, 1878, I, 373–374.</ref> As with almost everything in Giotto's career, the dates of the fresco decorations that survive in Santa Croce are disputed. The Bardi Chapel, immediately to the right of the main chapel of the church, was painted in true fresco, and to some scholars, the simplicity of its settings seems relatively close to those of Padua, but the Peruzzi Chapel's more complex settings suggest a later date.<ref>L. Tintori and E. Borsook, ''The Peruzzi Chapel'', Florence, 1965, 10; J. White, ''Art and Architecture in Italy'', Baltimore, 1968, 72f.</ref>
[[File:Giotto. Peruzzi Altarpiece 1310-15.North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh.jpg|thumb|Giotto, Peruzzi Altarpiece, c.1322, North Carolina Museum of Art]]
The Peruzzi Chapel is adjacent to the Bardi Chapel and was largely painted ''[[a secco]]''. The technique, quicker but less durable than a true fresco, has left the work in a seriously-deteriorated condition. Scholars who date the cycle earlier in Giotto's career see the growing interest in architectural expansion that it displays as close to the developments of the giottesque frescoes in the Lower Church at Assisi, but the Bardi frescoes have a new softness of colour that indicates the artist going in a different direction, probably under the influence of Sienese art so it must be later.<ref>C. Brandi, ''Giotto'', Milan, 1983, 185–186; L.Bellosi, ''Giotto'', Florence, 1981, 65, 71.</ref>

The Peruzzi Chapel pairs three frescoes from the life of [[St. John the Baptist]] (''The Annunciation of John's Birth to his father Zacharias; The Birth and Naming of John; The Feast of Herod'') on the left wall with three scenes from the life of [[St. John the Evangelist]] (''The Visions of John on Ephesus''; ''The Raising of Drusiana''; ''The Ascension of John'') on the right wall. The choice of scenes has been related to both the patrons and the [[Franciscans]].<ref>Tintori and Borsook; Laurie Schneider Adams, "The Iconography of the Peruzzi Chapel". ''L’Arte'', 1972, 1–104. (Reprinted in Andrew Ladis ed., ''Giotto and the World of Early Italian Art'' New York and London, 1998, 3, 131–144); Julie F. Codell, "Giotto's Peruzzi Chapel Frescoes: Wealth, Patronage and the Earthly City", ''Renaissance Quarterly'', 41 (1988), 583–613.</ref>  Because of the deteriorated condition of the frescoes, it is difficult to discuss Giotto's style in the chapel, but the frescoes show signs of his typical interest in controlled naturalism and psychological penetration.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Long|first=Jane C.|title=Parallelism in Giotto's Santa Croce Frescoes|date=2011|work=Push Me, Pull You|pages=327–353|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004215139|doi=10.1163/9789004215139_032|chapter=11. Parallelism in Giotto's Santa Croce Frescoes}}.</ref> The Peruzzi Chapel was especially renowned during Renaissance times. Giotto's compositions influenced [[Masaccio]]'s frescos at the [[Brancacci Chapel]], and Michelangelo is also known to have studied them.

The Bardi Chapel depicts the life of [[Francis of Assisi|St. Francis]], following a similar iconography to the frescoes in the Upper Church at Assisi, dating from 20 to 30 years earlier. A comparison shows the greater attention given by Giotto to expression in the human figures and the simpler, better-integrated architectural forms.  Giotto represents only seven scenes from the saint's life, and the narrative is arranged somewhat unusually. The story starts on the upper left wall with ''St. Francis Renounces his Father.'' It continues across the chapel to the upper right wall with the ''Approval of the Franciscan Rule'', moves down the right wall to the ''Trial by Fire'', across the chapel again to the left wall for the ''Appearance at Arles'', down the left wall to the ''Death of St. Francis'', and across once more to the posthumous ''Visions of Fra Agostino and the Bishop of Assisi.''  The ''Stigmatization of St. Francis'', which chronologically belongs between the ''Appearance at Arles'' and the ''Death'', is located outside the chapel, above the entrance arch. The arrangement encourages viewers to link scenes together: to pair frescoes across the chapel space or relate triads of frescoes along each wall. The linkings suggest meaningful symbolic relationships between different events in St. Francis's life.<ref>The concept of such linkings was first suggested for Padua by Michel Alpatoff, "The Parallelism of Giotto's Padua Frescoes", ''Art Bulletin'', 39 (1947) 149–154. It has been tied to the Bardi Chapel by Jane C. Long, "The Program of Giotto’s Saint Francis Cycle at Santa Croce in Florence", ''Franciscan Studies'' 52 (1992) 85–133, and William R. Cook, "Giotto and the Figure of St. Francis", in ''The Cambridge Companion to Giotto'', ed. A. Derbes and M. Sandona, Cambridge, 2004, 135–156.</ref>
[[File:Campanile di giotto 11.JPG|thumb|alt=Campanile di Giotto|[[Campanile di Giotto]] (Florence)]]