Feminism

=== Mid-20th century ===

By the mid-20th century, women still lacked significant rights.

In [[Women in France|France]], women obtained the [[Women's suffrage#France|right to vote]] only with the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] of 21 April 1944. [[Provisional Consultative Assembly|The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944]] proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by [[Fernand Grenier (French politician)|Fernard Grenier]], they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, following the [[November 1946 French legislative election|November 1946 elections]], the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the "[[gender differences|gender gap]]", stating in ''[[Le Populaire (French newspaper)|Le Populaire]]'' that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes. During the [[Post-World War II baby boom|baby boom]] period, feminism waned in importance. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles.<ref name=Bard>{{cite journal |first=Christine |last=Bard |url=http://www.histoire-politique.fr/index.php?numero=01&rub=dossier&item=7 |title=Les premières femmes au Gouvernement (France, 1936–1981) |trans-title=First Women in Government (France, 1936–1981) |journal=[[Histoire@Politique]] |issue=1 |date=May–June 2007 |volume=1 |page=2 |doi=10.3917/hp.001.0002 |language=fr}}</ref>

In [[Women in Switzerland|Switzerland]], women gained the [[Women's suffrage in Switzerland|right to vote]] in federal [[Elections in Switzerland|elections]] in 1971;<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zivkovic |first1=Olivera |title=Switzerland marks 50 years of women voting |url=https://www.dw.com/en/switzerland-marks-50-years-of-women-voting/a-56469446 |access-date=16 November 2022 |work=dw.com |date=7 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> but in the canton of [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland]].<ref>{{cite web|date=14 January 2003|title=United Nations press release of a meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127151927/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm|archive-date=27 January 2012|access-date=2 September 2011|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> In [[Women's suffrage in Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]], women were given the right to vote by the [[1984 Liechtenstein women's suffrage referendum|women's suffrage referendum of 1984]]. Three prior referendums held in [[1968 Liechtenstein referendums#Women's suffrage|1968]], [[1971 Liechtenstein women's suffrage referendum|1971]] and [[1973 Liechtenstein referendums#Women's suffrage|1973]] had failed to secure women's right to vote.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bro |first1=Alexandra |title=Commemorating the Nineteenth Amendment: Women's Suffrage at Home and Abroad |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/commemorating-nineteenth-amendment-womens-suffrage-home-and-abroad |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |access-date=16 November 2022 |language=en |date=27 August 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Photograph of American Women Replacing Men Fighting in Europe - NARA - 535769.tif|thumb|Photograph of American women replacing men fighting in Europe, 1945]]

Feminists continued to campaign for the reform of [[family law]]s which gave husbands control over their wives. Although by the 20th century [[coverture]] had been abolished in the UK and US, in many [[continental European]] countries married women still had very few rights. For instance, in France, married women did not receive the right to work without their husband's permission until 1965.<ref name=Guillaumin>{{cite book |last=Guillaumin|first=Colette|year=1994 |title=Racism, Sexism, Power, and Ideology |pages=193–95}}</ref><ref name=Meltzer>{{cite book |last=Meltzer |first=Françoise |year=1995 |title=Hot Property: The Stakes and Claims of Literary Originality |page=88}}</ref> Feminists have also worked to abolish the [[marital rape|"marital exemption" in rape laws]] which precluded the prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives.<ref name=Allison>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Julie A. |year=1995 |title=Rape: The Misunderstood Crime |page=89}}</ref> Earlier efforts by first-wave feminists such as [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], [[Victoria Woodhull]] and [[Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy]] to criminalize marital rape in the late 19th century had failed;<ref name=Bland>{{cite book |last=Bland |first=Lucy |year=2002 |title=Banishing the Beast: Feminism, Sex and Morality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cl8nLdfgz1IC |access-date=25 August 2013 |pages=135–49|publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-681-2 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 1040-0656 | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 54–68 [60] | last = Palczewski | first = Catherine Helen | title = Voltairine de Cleyre: Sexual Slavery and Sexual Pleasure in the Nineteenth Century | journal = [[NWSA Journal]] | date = 1 October 1995 | jstor = 4316402 }}</ref> this was only achieved a century later in most Western countries, but is still not achieved in many other parts of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Crowell |first1=Nancy A. |last2=Burgess |first2=Ann W. |year=1997 |title=Understanding Violence Against Women |page=127}}</ref>

French philosopher [[Simone de Beauvoir]] provided a [[Marxist]] solution and an [[existentialist]] view on many of the questions of feminism with the publication of ''Le Deuxième Sexe'' (''[[The Second Sex]]'') in 1949.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bergoffen |first=Debra |title=Simone de Beauvoir |date=16 August 2010 |orig-date=17 August 2004 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauvoir/ |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> The book expressed feminists' sense of injustice. Second-wave feminism is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s<ref name=Whelehan>{{cite book |last=Whelehan |first=Imelda |title=Modern Feminist Thought: From the Second Wave to 'Post-Feminism' |url=https://archive.org/details/modernfeministth0000whel |url-access=registration |year=1995 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-7486-0621-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/modernfeministth0000whel/page/25 25–43]}}</ref> and continuing to the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism. Second-wave feminism is largely concerned with issues of equality beyond suffrage, such as ending [[Sexism|gender discrimination]].<ref name=NoTurningBack464/>	
{{multiple image
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| image1    = The Feminine Mystique.jpg
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| image2    = Germaine Greer - The Female Eunuch.jpg
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| footer = ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963) by [[Betty Friedan]] and ''[[The Female Eunuch]]'' (1970) by [[Germaine Greer]] are considered landmark texts in second-wave feminism.
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Second-wave feminists see women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures. The feminist activist and author [[Carol Hanisch]] coined the slogan "The Personal is Political", which became synonymous with the second wave.<ref name=Echols/><ref name=Hanisch>{{cite web |url=http://scholar.alexanderstreet.com/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=2259 |title=Hanisch, New Intro to 'The Personal is Political' – Second Wave and Beyond |access-date=8 June 2008 |last=Hanisch |first=Carol |date=1 January 2006 |website=The Personal Is Political |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515014413/http://scholar.alexanderstreet.com/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=2259 |archive-date=15 May 2008}}</ref>

Second- and third-wave feminism in China has been characterized by a reexamination of women's roles during the communist revolution and other reform movements, and new discussions about whether women's equality has actually been fully achieved.<ref name="Dooling" />

In 1956, President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] of [[Feminism in Egypt|Egypt]] initiated "[[state feminism]]", which outlawed [[Human rights in Egypt#Status of women|discrimination based on gender]] and granted women's suffrage, but also blocked political activism by feminist leaders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Badran |first=Margot |title=Feminists, Islam, and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-691-02605-3}}{{page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> During [[Anwar Sadat|Sadat]]'s presidency, his wife, [[Jehan Sadat]], publicly advocated further women's rights, though Egyptian policy and society began to move away from women's equality with the new [[Islamist]] movement and growing conservatism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Bonnie G. |title=Global Feminisms Since 1945 |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-18491-5}}</ref> However, some activists proposed a new feminist movement, [[Islamic feminism]], which argues for women's equality within an Islamic framework.<ref>{{cite web|title=Islamic feminism means justice to women|url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/16-31Jan04-Print-Edition/1631200425.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821055118/https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/16-31Jan04-Print-Edition/1631200425.htm|archive-date=21 August 2013|access-date=31 March 2013|website=The Mili Gazette}}</ref>

In [[Feminism in Latin America|Latin America]], revolutions brought changes in women's status in countries such as [[Role of women in Nicaraguan Revolution|Nicaragua]], where [[feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution]] aided women's quality of life but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change.<ref name="parpart">{{Cite book |last1=Parpart |first1=Jane L. |last2=Connelly |first2=M. Patricia |last3=Connelly |first3=Patricia |last4=Barriteau |first4=V. Eudine |last5=Barriteau |first5=Eudine |title=Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development |location=Ottawa, Canada |publisher=International Development Research Centre |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-88936-910-8 |page=215}}</ref>

In 1963, [[Betty Friedan]]'s book ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' helped voice the discontent that American women felt. The book is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States.<ref name="nytimes2006">{{cite news|author-link=Margalit Fox |last=Fox |first=Margalit |date=5 February 2006|title=Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/us/betty-friedan-who-ignited-cause-in-feminine-mystique-dies-at-85.html|url-status=live|access-date=19 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124045206/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/us/betty-friedan-who-ignited-cause-in-feminine-mystique-dies-at-85.html|archive-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> Within ten years, women made up over half the First World workforce.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunt |first=Michael |year=2016 |title=The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937102-0 |pages=220–223}}</ref> In 1970, Australian writer [[Germaine Greer]] published ''[[The Female Eunuch]]'', which became a worldwide bestseller, reportedly driving up divorce rates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/26/germaine-greer-female-eunuch-feminists-influence|title=What Germaine Greer and The Female Eunuch mean to me|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=January 26, 2014|accessdate=January 16, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-female-eunuch-at-50-germaine-greers-fearless-feminist-masterpiece-147437|title=Friday essay: The Female Eunuch at 50, Germaine Greer's fearless, feminist masterpiece|work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|date=October 9, 2020|accessdate=January 16, 2023}}</ref> Greer posits that [[Misogyny|men hate women]], that women do not know this and direct the hatred upon themselves, as well as arguing that women are devitalised and repressed in their role as housewives and mothers.
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