Empire of Japan

===Meiji era (1868–1912)===
[[File:Emperor Meiji in 1873.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Emperor Meiji]], the 122nd emperor of Japan]]

{{Main|Meiji period|Meiji Restoration|Government of Meiji Japan}}

The [[Charter Oath]] was made public at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on April 7, 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's modernization.<ref>{{harvnb|Keene|2002|p=340}}, notes that one might "describe the Oath in Five Articles as a constitution for all ages".</ref> The [[Meiji oligarchy|Meiji leaders]] also aimed to boost morale and win financial support for the [[Government of Meiji Japan|new government]].
[[File:Iwakura mission.jpg|thumb|left|Prominent members of the Iwakura mission. Left to right: [[Kido Takayoshi]], Yamaguchi Masuka, [[Iwakura Tomomi]], [[Itō Hirobumi]], [[Ōkubo Toshimichi]]]]

Japan dispatched the [[Iwakura Mission]] in 1871. The mission traveled the world in order to renegotiate the unequal treaties with the United States and European countries that Japan had been forced into during the Tokugawa shogunate, and to gather information on western social and economic systems, in order to effect the modernization of Japan. Renegotiation of the unequal treaties was universally unsuccessful, but close observation of the American and European systems inspired members on their return to bring about modernization initiatives in Japan. Japan made a [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875)|territorial delimitation treaty]] with [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in 1875, gaining all the [[Kuril islands]] in exchange for [[Sakhalin island]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.go.jp/ayumi/kobetsu/m08_1875_02.html |title=明治8年（1875）4月｜漸次立憲政体樹立の詔が発せられ、元老院・大審院が設置される：日本のあゆみ}}</ref>

The Japanese government sent observers to Western countries to observe and learn their practices, and also paid "[[Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan|foreign advisors]]" in a variety of fields to come to Japan to educate the populace. For instance, the judicial system and [[Meiji Constitution|constitution]] were modeled after [[Prussia]], described by [[Saburō Ienaga]] as "an attempt to control popular thought with a blend of [[Confucianism]] and [[German conservatism]]."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kazuhiro |first=Takii |title=The Meiji Constitution. The Japanese Experience Of The West And The Shaping Of The Modern State |publisher=International House of Japan |year=2007 |pages=14}}</ref> The government also outlawed customs linked to Japan's feudal past, such as publicly displaying and wearing [[katana]] and the [[Chonmage|top knot]], both of which were characteristic of the samurai class, which was abolished together with the caste system. This would later bring the Meiji government into [[Satsuma Rebellion|conflict with the samurai]].

Several writers, under the constant threat of assassination from their political foes, were influential in winning Japanese support for [[westernization]]. One such writer was [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]], whose works included "Conditions in the West," "[[Datsu-A Ron|Leaving Asia]]", and "An Outline of a Theory of Civilization," which detailed Western society and his own philosophies. In the Meiji Restoration period, military and economic power was emphasized. Military strength became the means for national development and stability. Imperial Japan became the only non-Western [[world power]] and a major force in [[East Asia]] in about 25 years as a result of industrialization and economic development.

As writer [[Albrecht von Urach|Albrecht Fürst von Urach]] comments in his booklet "The Secret of Japan's Strength," published in 1942, during the [[Axis powers]] period:
<blockquote>The rise of Japan to a world power during the past 80 years is the greatest miracle in world history. The mighty empires of antiquity, the major political institutions of the Middle Ages and the early modern era, the Spanish Empire, the British Empire, all needed centuries to achieve their full strength. Japan's rise has been meteoric. After only 80 years, it is one of the few great powers that determine the fate of the world.<ref>[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/japan.htm The Secret of Japan's Strength] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711230850/http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/japan.htm |date=July 11, 2007 }} www.calvin.edu</ref></blockquote>

====Transposition in social order and cultural destruction====
{{Main|Japanese new religions#Before World War II|Christianity in Japan#Opening of Japan|History of the Catholic Church in Japan#Rediscovery and return}}
{{see also|Burakumin|Turanism}}

In the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. The feudal caste system in Japan formally ended in 1869 with the [[Meiji restoration]]. In 1871, the newly formed [[Meiji Era|Meiji]] government issued a decree called ''Senmin Haishirei'' ([[:ja:賤民廃止令|賤民廃止令]] ''Edict Abolishing Ignoble Classes'') giving [[burakumin]] equal legal status. It is currently better known as the ''Kaihōrei'' ([[:ja:解放令|解放令]] ''Emancipation Edict''). However, the elimination of their economic monopolies over certain occupations actually led to a decline in their general living standards, while social discrimination simply continued. For example, the ban on the consumption of meat from livestock was lifted in 1871, and many former ''burakumin'' moved on to work in [[slaughterhouse|abattoirs]] and as [[butcher]]s. However, slow-changing social attitudes, especially in the countryside, meant that abattoirs and workers were met with hostility from local residents. Continued ostracism as well as the decline in living standards led to former ''burakumin'' communities turning into slum areas.

In the [[Blood tax riots]], the Japanese Meiji government brutally put down revolts by Japanese samurai angry over the legal revocation of the traditional [[Untouchability|untouchable]] status of burakumin.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

The social tension continued to grow during the [[Meiji period]], affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditional [[syncreticism]] between Shinto and [[Buddhism]] ended. Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of the Edo period, some new religious movements appeared, which were directly influenced by [[shamanism]] and [[Shinto]].

Emperor Ogimachi issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, but to little effect. Beginning in 1587 with imperial regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi's ban on Jesuit missionaries, Christianity was repressed as a threat to national unity. Under Hideyoshi and the succeeding Tokugawa shogunate, Catholic Christianity was repressed and adherents were persecuted. After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1620, it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming {{nihongo|hidden Christians|隠れキリシタン|kakure kirishitan}}, while others lost their lives. After Japan was opened to foreign powers in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism was still banned. Only after the Meiji Restoration, was Christianity re-established in Japan. Freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching.

[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin),<ref name="snow">''Equal-to-the-Apostles St. Nicholas of Japan, Russian Orthodox Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist web-site, Washington D.C.''</ref> who was sent in 1861 by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] to [[Hakodate]], Hokkaidō as priest to a chapel of the Russian Consulate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orthodoxjapan.jp/daishukyou.html |title=日本の正教会の歴史と現代 "History of Japanese Orthodox Church and Now" |access-date=August 25, 2007 |date=February 1, 2007 |publisher=The Orthodox Church in Japan |language=ja}}</ref> St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of the [[New Testament]] and some other religious books ([[Triodion|Lenten Triodion]], [[Pentecostarion]], [[Liturgy|Feast Services]], [[Book of Psalms]], [[Irmologion]]) into [[Japanese language|Japanese]].<ref>''Orthodox translation of Gospel into Japanese, Pravostok Orthodox Portal, October 2006''</ref> Nicholas has since been canonized as a saint by the [[Patriarchate of Moscow]] in 1970, and is now recognized as St. Nicholas, [[Equal-to-the-Apostles]] to Japan. His commemoration day is February 16. [[Andronic Nikolsky]], appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto and later martyred as the archbishop of [[Perm, Russia|Perm]] during the [[Russian Revolution]], was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000.

[[File:Nagasaki Oura C1378.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Basilica of the Twenty-Six Holy Martyrs of Japan (Nagasaki)|Ōura Church]], [[Nagasaki]]]]
[[Divie Bethune McCartee]] was the first ordained [[Presbyterian]] minister [[Mission (Christian)|mission]]ary to visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospel [[Tract (literature)|tract]] translated into Japanese was among the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865, McCartee moved back to [[Ningbo]], China, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan re-opened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during the [[Shōwa period]].

Under the Meiji Restoration, the practices of the samurai classes, deemed feudal and unsuitable for modern times following the end of {{transliteration|ja|sakoku}} in 1853, resulted in a number of edicts intended to 'modernise' the appearance of upper class Japanese men. With the Dampatsurei Edict of 1871 issued by Emperor Meiji during the early Meiji Era, men of the samurai classes were forced to cut their hair short, effectively abandoning the chonmage ({{transliteration|ja|chonmage}}) hairstyle.<ref name="kanban">{{cite book |last=Scott Pate |first=Alan |title=Kanban: Traditional Shop Signs of Japan |date=9 May 2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a4ofDgAAQBAJ&dq=Dampatsurei+Edict&pg=PA149 |location=New Jersey |publisher=Princeton University Press |quote=In 1871 the Dampatsurei edict forced all samurai to cut off their topknots, a traditional source of identity and pride. |isbn=978-0691176475}}</ref>{{rp|149}}

During the early 20th century, the government was suspicious towards a number of unauthorized religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth of [[Japanese nationalism]] and [[State Shinto]] were closely linked. Under the Meiji regime ''[[lèse majesté]]'' prohibited insults against the Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism.

The majority of [[Japanese castle]]s were [[Japanese castle#Meiji Restoration|smashed and destroyed]] in the late 19th century in the Meiji restoration by the Japanese people and government in order to modernize and westernize Japan and break from their past feudal era of the Daimyo and Shoguns. It was only due to the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in Japan that cheap concrete replicas of those castles were built for tourists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tengulife.com/2017/05/the-rise-of-concrete-castle.html |title=The Rise of the Concrete Castle |last= |first= |date=May 2, 2017 |website=TenguLife: The curious guide to Japan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.gaijinpot.com/a-race-across-japan-to-see-its-last-original-castles/ |title=A Race Across Japan to See its Last Original Castles |last=Foo |first=Audrey |date=Jan 17, 2019 |website=GaijinPot}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2296.html |title=Japanese castles History of Castles |date=September 4, 2021 |website=Japan Guide}}</ref> The vast majority of castles in Japan today are new replicas made out of concrete.<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/japan/kansai/himeji/attractions/himeji-jo/a/poi-sig/1097570/356690 |title=Himeji-jō |website=Lonely Planet}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |date=Apr 6, 2020 |title=Japan's Modern Castles Episode One: Himeji Castle (姫路城) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddVbPRgO_50 |publisher=Japan's Modern Castles}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pursuitist.com/japanese-concrete-castle/ |title=Japanese Concrete Castle |last=Carter |first=Alex |date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> In 1959 a concrete keep was built for Nagoya castle.<ref>{{cite news |last=Baseel |first=Casey |date=March 27, 2017 |title=Nagoya Castle's concrete keep to be demolished and replaced with traditional wooden structure |url=https://japantoday.com/category/national/nagoya-castles-concrete-keep-to-be-demolished-and-replaced-with-traditional-wooden-structure |work=RocketNews24}}</ref>

During the Meiji restoration's [[Shinbutsu bunri]], tens of thousands of Japanese Buddhist religious idols and temples were smashed and destroyed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jref.com/articles/shinbutsu-bunri-the-separation-of-shinto-and-buddhism.468/ |title=Shinbutsu bunri – the separation of Shinto and Buddhism |last= |first= |date=11 July 2019 |website=Japan Reference}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=T. L. |date= |title=Process of architectural wooden preservation in Japan |url=https://www.witpress.com/Secure/elibrary/papers/STR13/STR13041FU1.pdf |journal=Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture |volume=XIII |issue= |pages=491–502}}</ref> Many statues still lie in ruins. Replica temples were rebuilt with concrete. Japan then closed and shut done tens of thousands of traditional old Shinto shrines in the [[Shrine Consolidation Policy]] and the Meiji government built the new modern [[List of the Fifteen Shrines of the Kenmu Restoration|15 shrines]] of the [[Kenmu restoration]] as a political move to link the Meiji restoration to the Kenmu restoration for their new State Shinto cult.

Japanese had to look at old paintings in order to find out what the [[Horyuji temple]] used to look like when they rebuilt it. The rebuilding was originally planned for the Shōwa era.<ref>{{cite news |last=Burgess |first=John |date=December 26, 1985 |title=After 51 Years, a Temple Is Restored |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1985/12/26/after-51-years-a-temple-is-restored/39e9345f-d796-40be-b639-587fba1d8319/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |location= |access-date=}}</ref>

The Japanese used mostly concrete in 1934 to rebuild the [[Togetsukyo Bridge]], unlike the original destroyed wooden version of the bridge from 836.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://alljapantours.com/japan/travel/where-to-go/best-places-to-see-in-kyoto-japan/ |title=20 PLACES YOU MUST SEE IN KYOTO |last=Hannah |first=Dayna |date=June 12, 2018 |website=Japan Travel Blog}}</ref>

====Political reform====
{{Main|Meiji Constitution}}
[[File:Japanese Parliament in session.jpg|thumb|upright|Interior of the [[House of Peers (Japan)|Japanese Parliament]], showing the Prime Minister speaking addressing the House of Peers, 1915]]

The idea of a written constitution had been a subject of heated debate within and outside of the government since the beginnings of the [[Meiji government]]. The conservative Meiji oligarchy viewed anything resembling [[democracy]] or [[republicanism]] with suspicion and trepidation, and favored a gradualist approach. The [[Freedom and People's Rights Movement]] demanded the immediate establishment of an elected [[national assembly]], and the promulgation of a constitution.

The constitution recognized the need for change and modernization after the removal of the [[shogunate]]:
<blockquote>We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government. ... In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws. ...</blockquote>

Imperial Japan was founded, ''[[de jure]]'', after the 1889 signing of Constitution of the Empire of Japan. The constitution formalized much of the Empire's political structure and gave many responsibilities and powers to the Emperor.
*Article 1. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal.
*Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.
*Article 3. The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.
*Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution.
*Article 5. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet.
*Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed.
*Article 7. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives.
*Article 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.hanover.edu/texts/1889con.html |title=1889 Japanese Constitution |website=history.hanover.edu}}</ref>
*Article 12. The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and Navy.
*Article 13. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties.
*Article 14. The Emperor declares a state of siege.
*Article 15. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor.
*Article 16. The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments and rehabilitation.
*Article 17. A Regency shall be instituted in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

In 1890, the [[National Diet|Imperial Diet]] was established in response to the Meiji Constitution. The Diet consisted of the [[House of Representatives of Japan]] and the [[House of Peers (Japan)|House of Peers]]. Both houses opened seats for colonial people as well as Japanese. The Imperial Diet continued until 1947.<ref name=ndlconstitution/>

====Economic development====
[[File:Baron Tarokaja Masuda c1915.png|thumb|upright|Baron Masuda Tarokaja, a member of the House of Peers (''[[Kazoku]]''). His father, Baron [[Masuda Takashi]], was responsible for transforming ''[[Mitsui]]'' into a ''[[zaibatsu]]''.]]

{{Main|Economy of the Empire of Japan|Economic history of Japan#20th century}}

Economic development was characterized by rapid [[industrialization]], the development of a [[capitalist economy]],<ref name="Odagiri & Goto">{{cite book |last=Odagiri |first=Hiroyuki |title=Technology and Industrial Development in Japan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-828802-2 |pages=72–73}}</ref> and the transformation of many [[Feudal Japan hierarchy|feudal]] workers to [[wage labour]]. The use of strike action also increased, and 1897, with the establishment of a union for metalworkers, the foundations of the modern [[Labor unions in Japan|Japanese trade-union movement]] were formed.<ref>Nimura, K. (1997). [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/104.3/br_18.html The Ashio Riot of 1907: A Social History of Mining in Japan.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204072930/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/104.3/br_18.html|date=2009-12-04}} ''American Historical Review, 104:3.'' June 1999. Retrieved 16 June 2011</ref>

Samurai were allowed to work in any occupation they wanted. Admission to universities was determined based on examination results. The government also recruited more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan ([[O-yatoi gaikokujin]]).<ref>Hardy's Case, The Japan Weekly Mail, January 4, 1875.</ref> Despite this, [[social mobility]] was still low due to samurai and their descendants being overrepresented in the new elite class.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=Gregory |last2=Ishii |first2=Tatsuya |date=2012 |title=Social Mobility in Japan, 1868–2012: The Surprising Persistence of the Samurai |url=https://faculty.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/gclark/The%20Son%20Also%20Rises/Japan%202012.pdf |journal=University of California, Davis}}</ref>

After sending observers to the United States, the Empire of Japan initially copied the decentralized American system with no central bank.<ref>Phra Sarasas, ''Money And Banking in Japan'' (1940) p. 107.</ref> In 1871, the ''New Currency Act'' of Meiji 4 (1871) abolished the local currencies and established the [[yen]] as the new decimal currency. It had parity with the Mexican silver dollar.<ref>Itsuo Hamaoka, ''A study on the Central Bank of Japan'' (1902) [[iarchive:studyoncentralba00hamauoft|online]]</ref><ref>Masato Shizume, "A History of the Bank of Japan, 1882–2016." (Waseda University, 2016) [https://www.waseda.jp/fpse/winpec/assets/uploads/2014/05/No.E1719.pdf online]</ref>

====First Sino-Japanese War====
{{Main|First Sino-Japanese War|Taiwan under Japanese rule}}
The [[First Sino-Japanese War]], fought in 1894 and 1895, revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the [[Joseon dynasty]]. Korea had traditionally been a [[tributary state]] of China's [[Qing dynasty|Qing Empire]], which exerted large influence over the conservative Korean officials who gathered around the royal family of the Joseon kingdom. On February 27, 1876, after several confrontations between Korean isolationists and the Japanese, Japan imposed the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876]], forcing Korea open to Japanese trade. The act blocked any other power from dominating Korea, resolving to end the centuries-old Chinese [[suzerainty]].

On June 4, 1894, Korea requested aid from the Qing Empire in suppressing the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution|Donghak Rebellion]]. The Qing government sent 2,800 troops to Korea. The Japanese countered by sending an 8,000-troop expeditionary force (the Oshima Composite Brigade) to Korea. The first 400 troops arrived on June 9 en route to [[Seoul]], and 3,000 landed at [[Incheon]] on June 12.<ref name="Seth 2010 225">{{cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J |title=A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present |year=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0-7425-6716-0 |page=225 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WJtMGXyGlUEC}}</ref> The Qing government turned down Japan's suggestion for Japan and China to cooperate to reform the Korean government. When Korea demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from Korea, the Japanese refused. In early June 1894, the 8,000 Japanese troops captured the Korean king Gojong, occupied the [[Gyeongbokgung|Royal Palace]] in Seoul and, by June 25, installed a puppet government in Seoul. The new pro-Japanese Korean government granted Japan the right to expel Qing forces while Japan dispatched more troops to Korea.

China objected and war ensued. Japanese ground troops routed the Chinese forces on the [[Liaodong Peninsula]], and nearly destroyed the Chinese navy in the [[Battle of the Yalu River (1894)|Battle of the Yalu River]]. The [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] was signed between Japan and China, which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]] to Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, and [[French Third Republic|France]] forced Japan to withdraw from Liaodong Peninsula in the [[Triple Intervention]]. Soon afterward, Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built the [[Port Arthur naval base|Port Arthur]] fortress, and based the [[Pacific Fleet (Russia)|Russian Pacific Fleet]] in the port. Germany occupied [[Jiaozhou Bay]], built Tsingtao fortress and based the German [[East Asia Squadron]] in this port.

====Boxer Rebellion====
[[File:Portrait_of_Komura_Jutaro.jpg|thumb|upright|Marquess [[Komura Jutarō|Komura Jutaro]]. Komura became Minister for Foreign Affairs under the first Katsura administration, and signed the [[Boxer Protocol]] on behalf of Japan.]]
{{Main|Boxer Rebellion|Boxer Protocol}}

In 1900, Japan joined an international military coalition set up in response to the Boxer Rebellion in the Qing Empire of China. Japan provided the largest contingent of troops: 20,840, as well as 18 warships. Of the total, 20,300 were Imperial Japanese Army troops of the [[5th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|5th Infantry Division]] under Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi; the remainder were 540 naval ''rikusentai'' (marines) from the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}

At the beginning of the Boxer Rebellion the Japanese only had 215 troops in northern China stationed at Tientsin; nearly all of them were naval ''rikusentai'' from the {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Kasagi||2}} and the {{ship|Japanese gunboat|Atago||2}}, under the command of Captain [[Shimamura Hayao]].{{sfn|Ion|2014|p=44}} The Japanese were able to contribute 52 men to the [[Seymour Expedition]].{{sfn|Ion|2014|p=44}} On 12 June 1900, the advance of the Seymour Expedition was halted some {{convert|30|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip}} from the capital, by mixed Boxer and Chinese regular army forces. The vastly outnumbered allies withdrew to the vicinity of [[Tianjin]], having suffered more than 300 casualties.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=97}} The [[Imperial Japanese Army General Staff|army general staff]] in Tokyo had become aware of the worsening conditions in China and had drafted ambitious contingency plans,{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} but in the wake of the Triple Intervention five years before, the government refused to deploy large numbers of troops unless requested by the western powers.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} However three days later, a provisional force of 1,300 troops commanded by Major General [[Fukushima Yasumasa]] was to be deployed to northern China. Fukushima was chosen because he spoke fluent English which enabled him to communicate with the British commander. The force landed near Tianjin on July 5.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}}

On 17 June 1900, naval ''Rikusentai'' from the ''Kasagi'' and ''Atago'' had joined British, Russian, and German sailors to seize the [[Battle of the Taku Forts (1900)|Dagu forts]] near Tianjin.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} In light of the precarious situation, the British were compelled to ask Japan for additional reinforcements, as the Japanese had the only readily available forces in the region.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} Britain at the time was heavily engaged in the [[Boer War]], so a large part of the British army was tied down in South Africa. Further, deploying large numbers of troops from its [[British Indian Army|garrisons in India]] would take too much time and weaken internal security there.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} Overriding personal doubts, Foreign Minister [[Aoki Shūzō]] calculated that the advantages of participating in an allied coalition were too attractive to ignore. Prime Minister Yamagata agreed, but others in the cabinet demanded that there be guarantees from the British in return for the risks and costs of the major deployment of Japanese troops.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} On July 6, 1900, the 5th Infantry Division was alerted for possible deployment to China, but no timetable was set for this. Two days later, with more ground troops urgently needed to lift the siege of the foreign legations at Peking, the British ambassador offered the Japanese government one million British pounds in exchange for Japanese participation.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}}

Shortly afterward, advance units of the 5th Division departed for China, bringing Japanese strength to 3,800 personnel out of the 17,000 of allied forces.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} The commander of the 5th Division, Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi, had taken operational control from Fukushima. Japanese troops were involved in the [[Battle of Tientsin|storming of Tianjin]] on July 14,{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} after which the allies consolidated and awaited the remainder of the 5th Division and other coalition reinforcements. By the time the siege of legations was lifted on August 14, 1900, the Japanese force of 13,000 was the largest single contingent and made up about 40% of the approximately 33,000 strong allied expeditionary force.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=98}} Japanese troops involved in the fighting had acquitted themselves well, although a British military observer felt their aggressiveness, densely-packed formations, and over-willingness to attack cost them excessive and disproportionate casualties.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=99}} For example, during the Tianjin fighting, the Japanese suffered more than half of the allied casualties (400 out of 730) but comprised less than one quarter (3,800) of the force of 17,000.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=99}} Similarly at Beijing, the Japanese accounted for almost two-thirds of the losses (280 of 453) even though they constituted slightly less than half of the assault force.{{sfn|Drea|2009|p=99}}

After the uprising, Japan and the Western countries signed the [[Boxer Protocol]] with China, which permitted them to station troops on Chinese soil to protect their citizens. After the treaty, Russia continued to occupy all of [[Manchuria]].

====Russo-Japanese War====
[[File:Assaut-Kin-Tchéou.jpg|thumb|French illustration of a Japanese assault on entrenched Russian troops during the [[Russo-Japanese War]]]]
{{Main|Russo-Japanese War}}
{{Expand section|date=February 2018}}

The [[Russo-Japanese War]] was a conflict for control of Korea and parts of Manchuria between the Russian Empire and Empire of Japan that took place from 1904 to 1905. The victory greatly raised Japan's stature in the world of global politics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Sarah |title=The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero |pages=503}}</ref> The war is marked by the Japanese opposition of Russian interests in Korea, Manchuria, and China, notably, the Liaodong Peninsula, controlled by the city of [[Lüshunkou District|Ryojun]].

Originally, in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Ryojun had been given to Japan. This part of the treaty was overruled by Western powers, which gave the port to the Russian Empire, furthering Russian interests in the region. These interests came into conflict with Japanese interests. The war began with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern fleet stationed at Port Arthur, which was followed by the [[Battle of Port Arthur]]. Those elements that attempted escape were defeated by the Japanese navy under Admiral Togo Heihachiro at the [[Battle of the Yellow Sea]]. Following a late start, the Russian Baltic fleet was denied passage through the British-controlled [[Suez Canal]]. The fleet arrived on the scene a year later, only to be annihilated in the [[Battle of Tsushima]]. While the ground war did not fare as poorly for the Russians, the Japanese forces were significantly more aggressive than their Russian counterparts and gained a political advantage that culminated with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]], negotiated in the United States by the [[President of the United States|American president]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. As a result, Russia lost the part of [[Sakhalin]] Island south of [[50th parallel north|50 degrees North]] latitude (which became [[Karafuto Prefecture]]), as well as many mineral rights in Manchuria. In addition, Russia's defeat cleared the way for Japan to [[Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty|annex Korea outright]] in 1910.

====Annexation of Korea====
{{Main|Korea under Japanese rule}}

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various Western countries actively competed for influence, trade, and territory in East Asia, and Japan sought to join these modern colonial powers. The newly modernised Meiji government of Japan turned to Korea (under the Joseon dynasty), then in the [[sphere of influence]] of China's Qing dynasty. The Japanese government initially sought to separate Korea from Qing and make Korea a Japanese [[puppet state]] in order to further their security and national interests.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duus |first=Peter |title=The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910 |publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0520213616}}</ref>

In January 1876, following the Meiji Restoration, Japan employed [[gunboat diplomacy]] to pressure the Joseon Dynasty into signing the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, which granted [[Extraterritoriality|extraterritorial rights]] to Japanese citizens and opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade. The rights granted to Japan under this [[unequal treaty]],<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200707220222.html A reckless adventure in Taiwan amid Meiji Restoration turmoil] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031070532/http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200707220222.html |date=October 31, 2007 }}, ''THE ASAHI SHIMBUN'', Retrieved on July 22, 2007.</ref> were similar to those granted western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Japanese involvement in Korea increased during the 1890s, a period of political upheaval.

Korea (under the [[Korean Empire]]) was ''de facto'' occupied and declared a Japanese [[protectorate]] following the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905]]. After proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire, Korea was officially [[annexed]] in Japan through the annexation treaty in 1910.

In Korea, the period is usually described as the "Time of Japanese Forced Occupation" ([[Hangul]]: {{lang|ko|일제 강점기}}; ''Ilje gangjeomgi'', [[Hanja]]: 日帝强占期). Other terms include "Japanese Imperial Period" ([[Hangul]]: {{lang|ko|일제시대}}, ''Ilje sidae'', [[Hanja]]: 日帝時代) or "Japanese administration" ([[Hangul]]: {{lang|ko|왜정}}, ''Wae jeong'', {{lang|ko|[[Hanja]]: 倭政}}). In Japan, a more common description is {{nihongo|"The Korea of Japanese rule"|日本統治時代の朝鮮|Nippon Tōchi-jidai no Chōsen}}. The [[Korean Peninsula]] was officially part of the Empire of Japan for 35 years, from August 29, 1910, until the formal Japanese rule ended, ''de jure'', on September 2, 1945, upon the [[surrender of Japan]] in [[World War II]]. The 1905 and 1910 treaties were eventually declared "null and void" by both Japan and South Korea in 1965.