Empire

===Classical period===
{{See also|Sino-Roman relations}}{{Multiple image
| header            = Empires of the Classical period
| header_background = #f8eaba
| image1            = Roman Empire-117AD.png
| caption1          = [[Roman Empire]] under [[Trajan]] (98–117). This would be the peak of the empire's territorial extent.
| image2            = Map of the Han dynasty.svg
| caption2          = [[Han Empire]] of China in 2 AD
}}

The [[Axial Age]] (mid-First Millennium BC) witnessed unprecedented imperial expansion in the Indo-Mediterranean region and China.<ref>Samuel N. Eisenstadt, ''Axial Age Civilizations'', (New York: New York State University Press, 1986)</ref> The successful and extensive [[Achaemenid Empire]] (550–330 BC), also known as the first Persian Empire, covered [[Mesopotamia]], [[Egypt]], parts of [[Greece]], [[Thrace]], the [[Middle East]], much of [[Central Asia]], and North-Western [[India]]. It is considered the first great empire in history or the first "world empire".<ref>[[Friedrich Ratzel]], "Territorial Growth of States", ''Human Geography: An Essential Anthology'', (eds. Agnew, John, & Livingstone, David & Rogers, Alisdair, Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), p 527; and "The Laws of the Spatial Growth of States", The ''Structure of Political Geography'', (eds. Kasperson, Roger E., & Minghi, Julian V., Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1969), p 18.</ref> It was overthrown and replaced by the short-lived empire of [[Alexander the Great]]. His Empire was succeeded by three Empires ruled by the [[Diadochi]]—the [[Seleucid]], [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]], and [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]], which, despite being independent, are called the "[[Hellenistic]] Empire" by virtue of their similarities in culture and administration.

Meanwhile, in the western Mediterranean the Empires of [[Carthage]] and [[Rome]] began their rise. Having decisively defeated Carthage in 202 BC, Rome defeated Macedonia in 200 BC and the Seleucids in 190–189 BC to establish an all-Mediterranean Empire. The Seleucid Empire broke apart and its former eastern part was absorbed by the [[Parthian Empire]]. In 30 BC Rome annexed Ptolemaic Egypt.

In India during the [[Axial Age]] appeared the [[Maurya Empire]]—a geographically extensive and powerful empire, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. The empire was founded in 322 BC by [[Chandragupta Maurya]] through the help of [[Chanakya]],<ref name="Namita2008">{{Cite book |last=Namita Sanjay Sugandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8bdULPF4gNYC&pg=PA88 |title=Between the Patterns of History: Rethinking Mauryan Imperial Interaction in the Southern Deccan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-549-74441-2 |pages=88–89 |access-date=2012-06-06 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> who rapidly expanded his power westward across central and western India, taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers following the withdrawal by Alexander the Great. By 320 BC, the Maurya Empire had fully occupied [[northwestern India]] as well as defeating and conquering the [[satrap]]s left by Alexander. Under Emperor [[Ashoka the Great]], the Maurya Empire became the first Indian empire to conquer the whole Indian Peninsula — an achievement repeated only twice, by the [[Gupta]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Empires. In the reign of Ashoka [[Buddhism]] spread to become the dominant religion in many parts of the ancient India.{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}}

In 221 BC, China became an empire when the [[Qin (state)|State of Qin]] ended the chaotic [[Warring States period]] through its [[Qin's wars of unification|conquest]] of the [[Seven Warring States|other six states]] and proclaimed the [[Qin dynasty|Qin Empire]] (221–207 BC). The Qin Empire is known for the construction of the [[Great Wall of China]] and the [[Terracotta Army]], as well as the standardization of currency, weights, measures and writing system. It laid the foundation for China's first golden age, the [[Han dynasty|Han Empire]] (202 BC–AD 9, AD 25–220). The Han Empire [[Protectorate of the Western Regions|expanded into Central Asia]] and established trade through the [[Silk Road]]. [[Confucianism]] was, for the first time, adopted as an official state ideology. During the reign of the [[Emperor Wu of Han]], the [[Xiongnu]] were pacified. By this time, only four empires stretched between the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]: the Han Empire of China, the [[Kushan Empire]], the [[Parthian Empire]] of Persia, and the [[Roman Empire]]. The [[end of the Han dynasty|collapse of the Han Empire]] in AD 220 saw China fragmented into the [[Three Kingdoms]], only to be unified once again by the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin Empire]] (AD 266–420). The relative weakness of the Jin Empire plunged China into political disunity that would last from AD 304 to AD 589 when the [[Sui dynasty|Sui Empire]] (AD 581–618) reunited China.{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}}

[[File:Eurasia in 2nd Century.png|thumb|300px|Map showing the four empires of Eurasia in the 2nd century AD]]

The Romans were the first people to invent and embody the concept of empire in their two mandates: to wage war and to make and execute laws.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} They were the most extensive Western empire until the [[early modern period]], and left a lasting impact on European society. Many languages, cultural values, religious institutions, political divisions, urban centers, and legal systems can trace their origins to the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire governed and rested on exploitative actions. They took slaves and money from the peripheries to support the imperial center.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} However, the absolute reliance on conquered peoples to carry out the empire's fortune, sustain wealth, and fight wars would ultimately lead to the collapse of the Roman Empire.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} The Romans were strong believers in what they called their "civilizing mission". This term was legitimized and justified by writers like Cicero who wrote that only under Roman rule could the world flourish and prosper.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} This ideology, that was envisioned to bring a new world order, was eventually spread across the Mediterranean world and beyond. People started to build houses like Romans, eat the same food, wear the same clothes and engage in the same games.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} Even rights of citizenship and authority to rule were granted to people not born within Roman territory.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}}

The Latin word ''[[imperium]]'', referring to a magistrate's power to command, gradually assumed the meaning "The territory in which a magistrate can effectively enforce his commands", while the term "''imperator''" was originally an honorific meaning "commander". The title was given to generals who were victorious in battle. Thus, an "empire" may include regions that are not legally within the territory of a state, but are under either direct or indirect control of that state, such as a [[colony]], [[client state]], or [[protectorate]]. Although historians use the terms "Republican Period" and "Imperial Period" to identify the periods of Roman history before and after absolute power was assumed by [[Augustus]], the Romans themselves continued to refer to their government as a republic, and during the Republican Period, the territories controlled by the republic were referred to as "''Imperium Romanum''". The emperor's actual legal power derived from holding the office of "consul", but he was traditionally honored with the titles of ''imperator'' (commander) and ''princeps'' (first man or, chief). Later, these terms came to have legal significance in their own right; an army calling their general "''imperator''" was a direct challenge to the authority of the current emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michael Burger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQUs2QnC2F4C&q=imperator%20princeps%20%22commander%20in%20chief%22&pg=PA115 |title=The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-432-3 |page=115}}</ref>

The legal systems of [[France]] and its former colonies are strongly influenced by Roman law.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ken Pennington |title=France – Legal History |url=http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/FranceLegalHistory.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929015635/http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/FranceLegalHistory.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2013 |access-date=September 23, 2013 |publisher=Columbus School of Law and School of Canon Law, The Catholic University of America}}</ref> Similarly, the United States was founded on a model inspired by the [[Roman Republic]], with upper and lower legislative assemblies, and executive power vested in a single individual, the president. The president, as "commander-in-chief" of the armed forces, reflects the ancient Roman titles ''imperator princeps''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Haven |first=Cynthia |author-link=Cynthia Haven |date=February 19, 2010 |title=Stanford scholar links Rome and America in Philadelphia exhibition |url=http://news.stanford.edu/news/2010/february15/caroline-winterer-qanda-021910.html |publisher=Stanford Report}}</ref> The [[Roman Catholic Church]], founded in the early Imperial Period, spread across Europe, first by the activities of Christian evangelists, and later by official imperial promulgation.