Communication

=== Non-verbal ===
{{Main|Non-verbal communication}}
[[File:Hermandad - friendship.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a handshake|[[Handshake|Shaking hands]] is one form of non-verbal communication.]]
Non-verbal communication is the exchange of information through non-linguistic modes, like facial expressions, [[gesture]]s, and [[Human position|postures]].<ref>{{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=492}}</ref> However, not every form of non-verbal behavior constitutes non-verbal communication. Some theorists, like [[Judee K. Burgoon|Judee Burgoon]], hold that it depends on the existence of a socially shared coding system that is used to interpret the meaning of non-verbal behavior.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}}</ref> Non-verbal communication has many functions. It frequently contains information about emotions, attitudes, personality, interpersonal relations, and private thoughts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=107}} | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} }}</ref>

Non-verbal communication often happens unintentionally and unconsciously, like [[sweating]] or [[blushing]], but there are also conscious intentional forms, like shaking hands or [[Thumb signal|raising a thumb]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=493}} }}</ref> It often happens simultaneously with verbal communication and helps optimize the exchange through emphasis and illustration or by adding additional information. Non-verbal cues can clarify the intent behind a verbal message.<ref>{{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=107}}</ref> Using multiple [[Modality (semiotics)|modalities]] of communication in this way usually makes communication more effective if the messages of each modality are consistent.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=691}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|1962|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}} }}</ref> However, in some cases different modalities can contain conflicting messages. For example, a person may verbally agree with a statement but press their lips together, thereby indicating disagreement non-verbally.<ref>{{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=493}}</ref>

There are many forms of non-verbal communication. They include [[kinesics]], [[proxemics]], [[Haptic communication|haptics]], [[paralanguage]], [[chronemics]], and physical appearance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=692–694}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} }}</ref> Kinesics studies the role of bodily behavior in conveying information. It is commonly referred to as [[body language]], even though it is, strictly speaking, not a language but rather non-verbal communication. It includes many forms, like gestures, postures, walking styles, and dance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|pp=493–495}} }}</ref> Facial expressions, like laughing, smiling, and frowning, all belong to kinesics and are expressive and flexible forms of communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=693}}</ref> Oculesics is another subcategory of kinesics in regard to the eyes. It covers questions like how eye contact, gaze, blink rate, and pupil dilation form part of communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=692}}</ref> Some kinesic patterns are inborn and involuntary, like blinking, while others are learned and voluntary, like giving a [[military salute]].<ref>{{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=493}}</ref>

Proxemics studies how personal space is used in communication. The distance between the speakers reflects their degree of familiarity and intimacy with each other as well as their social status.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=692}}</ref> Haptics examines how information is conveyed using touching behavior, like handshakes, holding hands, kissing, or slapping. Meanings linked to haptics include care, concern, anger, and violence. For instance, handshaking is often seen as a symbol of equality and fairness, while refusing to shake hands can indicate aggressiveness. Kissing is another form often used to show affection and erotic closeness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=692}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=494}} }}</ref>

Paralanguage, also known as vocalics, encompasses non-verbal elements in speech that convey information. Paralanguage is often used to express the feelings and emotions that the speaker has but does not explicitly stated in the verbal part of the message. It is not concerned with the words used but with how they are expressed. This includes elements like articulation, lip control, rhythm, intensity, pitch, fluency, and loudness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=694}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} | {{harvnb|Papa|Daniels|Spiker|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=00m0QPQ07H0C&pg=PA27 27]}} }}</ref> For example, saying something loudly and in a high pitch conveys a different meaning on the non-verbal level than whispering the same words. Paralanguage is mainly concerned with spoken language but also includes aspects of written language, like the use of colors and fonts as well as spatial arrangement in paragraphs and tables.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=310}} | {{harvnb|Papa|Daniels|Spiker|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=00m0QPQ07H0C&pg=PA27 27]}} }}</ref> Non-linguistic sounds may also convey information; [[crying]] indicates that an infant is distressed, and [[babbling]] conveys information about infant health and well-being.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McCormack|McLeod|Harrison|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pdAoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} | {{harvnb|Bornstein|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nyZpbi4IiSoC&pg=PA151 151]}} }}</ref>

Chronemics concerns the use of time, such as what messages are sent by being on time versus late for a meeting.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=692–693}}</ref> The physical appearance of the communicator, such as height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, clothing, tattooing, and piercing, also carries information.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=693–694}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=492}} }}</ref> Appearance is an important factor for first impressions but is more limited as a mode of communication since it is less changeable.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=693–694}}</ref> Some forms of non-verbal communication happen using such artifacts as drums, smoke, batons, traffic lights, and flags.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Givens|White|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UhgoEAAAQBAJ 28, 55]}} | {{harvnb|Chan|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CmXIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}} }}</ref>

Non-verbal communication can also happen through visual [[Media (communication)|media]] like [[painting]]s and [[drawing]]s. They can express what a person or an object looks like and can also convey other ideas and emotions. In some cases, this type of non-verbal communication is used in combination with verbal communication, for example, when [[diagram]]s or [[map]]s employ labels to include additional linguistic information.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Krémer|Quijano|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6QVDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT121 121–122]}} | {{harvnb|du Plessis|Lowe|Smith|Sykes|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ympNWY4wajAC&pg=PA124 124–216]}} | {{harvnb|Ongaro|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uljwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 216]}} | {{harvnb|Jeanrond|1991|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CzWxCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–8]}} }}</ref>

Traditionally, most research focused on verbal communication. However, this paradigm began to shift in the 1950s when research interest in non-verbal communication increased and emphasized its influence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Clough|Duff|2020|p=323}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 244]|loc=Logocentrism}} | {{harvnb|Mills|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ouHnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT132 132–133]}} }}</ref> For example, many judgments about the nature and behavior of other people are based on non-verbal cues.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}}</ref> It is further present in almost every communicative act to some extent and certain parts of it are universally understood.<ref>{{harvnb|Burgoon|Manusov|Guerrero|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JqVYCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3–4]}}</ref> These considerations have prompted some communication theorists, like [[Ray Birdwhistell]], to claim that the majority of ideas and information is conveyed this way.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|pp=492–493}} | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=690–961}} }}</ref> It has also been suggested that human communication is at its core non-verbal and that words can only acquire meaning because of non-verbal communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=691}}</ref> The earliest forms of human communication, such as crying and babbling, are non-verbal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McCormack|McLeod|Harrison|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pdAoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} | {{harvnb|Bornstein|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nyZpbi4IiSoC&pg=PA151 151]}} }}</ref> Some basic forms of communication happen even before birth between mother and embryo and include information about nutrition and emotions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bowman|Arany|Wolfgang|2021|pp=1455–1456}} | {{harvnb|Bornstein|Suwalsky|Breakstone|2012|pp=113–116}} }}</ref> Non-verbal communication is studied in various fields besides communication studies, like linguistics, [[semiotics]], [[anthropology]], and [[social psychology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}}</ref>