Civil rights movement

=== Protests begin ===
The strategy of public education, legislative lobbying, and litigation that had typified the civil rights movement during the first half of the 20th century broadened after ''Brown'' to a strategy that emphasized "[[direct action]]": boycotts, [[sit-in]]s, [[Freedom Rides]], marches or walks, and similar tactics that relied on mass mobilization, nonviolent resistance, standing in line, and, at times, civil disobedience.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Carter|first=April|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OqJMHf438OEC&q=direct+action+in+united+states&pg=PR7|title=Direct Action and Democracy Today|date=January 14, 2005|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-2936-0|page=x|language=en}}</ref>

Churches, local grassroots organizations, fraternal societies, and black-owned businesses mobilized volunteers to participate in broad-based actions. This was a more direct and potentially more rapid means of creating change than the traditional approach of mounting court challenges used by the NAACP and others.

In 1952, the [[Regional Council of Negro Leadership]] (RCNL), led by [[T. R. M. Howard]], a black surgeon, entrepreneur, and planter organized a successful boycott of gas stations in Mississippi that refused to provide restrooms for blacks. Through the RCNL, Howard led campaigns to expose brutality by the Mississippi state highway patrol and to encourage blacks to make deposits in the black-owned Tri-State Bank of [[Nashville]] which, in turn, gave loans to civil rights activists who were victims of a "credit squeeze" by the [[White Citizens' Councils]].<ref name="Beito and Beito">David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, ''Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power'', Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009, pp. 81, 99–100.</ref>

After [[Claudette Colvin]] was arrested for not giving up her seat on a [[Montgomery, Alabama]] bus in March 1955, a bus boycott was considered and rejected. But when [[Rosa Parks]] was arrested in December, [[Jo Ann Robinson|Jo Ann Gibson Robinson]] of the Montgomery Women's Political Council put the bus boycott protest in motion. Late that night, she, John Cannon (chairman of the Business Department at [[Alabama State University]]) and others mimeographed and distributed thousands of leaflets calling for a boycott.<ref>{{cite web |title=Robinson, Jo Ann Gibson |url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/robinson-jo-ann-gibson |website=The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute |date=June 22, 2017 |publisher=Stanford University |access-date=December 3, 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Robinson 1986">Robinson, Jo Ann & Garrow, David J. (foreword by Coretta Scott King) ''The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It'' (1986) {{ISBN|0-394-75623-1}} Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press</ref> The eventual success of the boycott made its spokesman [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], a nationally known figure. It also inspired other bus boycotts, such as the successful [[Tallahassee, Florida]] boycott of 1956–57.<ref>[http://www.tallahassee.com/special/boycott/reader-smith.html "The Tallahassee Bus Boycott—Fifty Years Later]," ''The Tallahassee Democrat'', May 21, 2006 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210094329/http://www.tallahassee.com/special/boycott/reader-smith.html |date=December 10, 2007 }}</ref> This movement also sparked the [[1956 Sugar Bowl]] riots in Atlanta which later became a major organizing center of the civil rights movement, with Martin Luther King Jr.<ref name=fcflu>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Cs9RAAAAIBAJ&pg=4796%2C5131560 |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |last=Sell |first=Jack |title=Panthers defeat flu; face Ga. Tech next |date=December 30, 1955 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="kruse">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5763Zgu4_oC&pg=PP1|title=White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism|author=Kevin Michael Kruse|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=February 1, 2008|isbn=978-0-691-09260-7}}</ref>

In 1957, King and [[Ralph Abernathy]], the leaders of the Montgomery Improvement Association, joined with other church leaders who had led similar boycott efforts, such as [[C.&nbsp;K. Steele]] of Tallahassee and [[T.&nbsp;J. Jemison]] of Baton Rouge, and other activists such as [[Fred Shuttlesworth]], [[Ella Baker]], [[A. Philip Randolph]], [[Bayard Rustin]] and [[Stanley Levison]], to form the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] (SCLC). The SCLC, with its headquarters in [[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], did not attempt to create a network of chapters as the NAACP did. It offered training and leadership assistance for local efforts to fight segregation. The headquarters organization raised funds, mostly from Northern sources, to support such campaigns. It made nonviolence both its central tenet and its primary method of confronting racism.

In 1959, [[Septima Clarke]], Bernice Robinson, and [[Esau Jenkins]], with the help of [[Myles Horton]]'s [[Highlander Research and Education Center|Highlander Folk School]] in [[Tennessee]], began the first Citizenship Schools in [[South Carolina]]'s [[Sea Islands]]. They taught literacy to enable blacks to pass voting tests. The program was an enormous success and tripled the number of black voters on [[Johns Island, South Carolina|Johns Island]]. SCLC took over the program and duplicated its results elsewhere.