California

===Mexican period===
{{main|Alta California|Ranchos of California}}
[[File:1836 alvarado flag.webp|thumb|left|The flag used by [[Californio]] leader [[Juan Bautista Alvarado]]'s 1836 [[California independence]] movement]]

In 1821, the [[Mexican War of Independence]] gave the [[Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire|Mexican Empire]] (which included California) independence from Spain. For the next 25 years, Alta California remained a remote, sparsely populated, northwestern administrative district of the newly independent country of Mexico, which shortly after independence became a republic. The [[Missions of California|missions]], which controlled most of the best land in the state, were [[secularized]] by 1834 and became the property of the Mexican government.<ref name=nps/> The governor granted many square leagues of land to others with political influence. These huge ''[[Ranchos of California|ranchos]]'' or cattle ranches emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. The ranchos developed under ownership by [[Californio]]s (Hispanics native of California) who traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants. Beef did not become a commodity until the 1849 [[California Gold Rush]].

From the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and Canada began to arrive in Northern California. These new arrivals used the [[Siskiyou Trail]], [[California Trail]], [[Oregon Trail]] and [[Old Spanish Trail (trade route)|Old Spanish Trail]] to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts in and surrounding California. The early government of the newly independent Mexico was highly unstable, and in a reflection of this, from 1831 onwards, California also experienced a series of armed disputes, both internal and with the central Mexican government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altman |first=Linda Jacobs |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=rAgL-tgWOecC|page=117}} |title=California |date=2005 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-1737-8 |page=117 |access-date=March 16, 2013}}{{break}}{{cite book |title=Testimonios: Early California Through the Eyes of Women, 1815–1848 |url= {{google books |plainurl=y |id=DuvFpaRwJlgC||page=425}} |access-date=March 16, 2013 |date=2006 |publisher=Heyday |isbn=978-1-59714-033-1 |page=425}}</ref> During this tumultuous political period [[Juan Bautista Alvarado]] was able to secure the governorship during 1836–1842.<ref>{{harvnb|Starr|2007|p=17}}{{break}}{{Cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=AYMPR6xAj50C||page=316}} |title=Historic Spots in California |date=2002 |publisher=Historic Spots in California |isbn=978-0-8047-7817-6 |editor-last=Hoover |editor-first=Mildred Brooke |page=316 |access-date=March 16, 2013 |editor-last2=Kyle |editor-first2=Douglas E.}}{{break}}{{cite book |last=Conway |first=J. D. |title=Monterey: Presidio, Pueblo, and Port |series=The Making of America Series |url= {{google books |plainurl=y |id=vz1jyn7Ti3oC|page=53}} |access-date=March 16, 2013 |date=2003 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=978-0-7385-2423-8 |pages=53–55}}</ref> The military action which first brought Alvarado to power had momentarily declared California to be an independent state, and had been aided by [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] residents of California,<ref name="Graham1840">{{Cite book |last1=Billington |first1=Ray Allen |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=YoV-k7VcyZ0C|page=203}} |title=Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier |last2=Ridge |first2=Martin |date=2001 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-1981-4 |page=203 |author-link2=Martin Ridge (historian) |access-date=February 16, 2013}}</ref> including [[Isaac Graham]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hart |first=James David |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=teJCPQtWfOMC315|page=315}} |title=A Companion to California |date=1987 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05544-5 |page=315 |access-date=March 16, 2013}}{{break}}{{cite book |last=Harlow |first=Neal |title=California Conquered: The Annexation of a Mexican Province, 1846–1850 |url= {{google books |plainurl=y |id=pApgP6lBVbMC|page=27}} |access-date=March 16, 2013 |date=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06605-2 |page=27}}</ref> In 1840, one hundred of those residents who did not have passports were arrested, leading to the [[Isaac Graham|Graham Affair]], which was resolved in part with the intercession of [[Royal Navy]] officials.<ref name="Graham1840" />

[[File:"General Vallejo Reviewing His Troops in Sonoma, 1846".jpg|thumb|right|250px|General [[Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo|Mariano G. Vallejo]] reviewing his troops in the [[Sonoma Plaza]], 1846]]

One of the largest ranchers in California was [[John Marsh (pioneer)|John Marsh]]. After failing to obtain justice against squatters on his land from the Mexican courts, he determined that California should become part of the United States. Marsh conducted a letter-writing campaign espousing the California climate, the soil, and other reasons to settle there, as well as the best route to follow, which became known as "Marsh's route". His letters were read, reread, passed around, and printed in newspapers throughout the country, and started the first wagon trains rolling to California.<ref>Lyman, George D. ''John Marsh, Pioneer: The Life Story of a Trail-Blazer on Six Frontiers'', pp. 237–39, The Chautauqua Press, Chautauqua, New York, 1931.</ref> He invited immigrants to stay on his ranch until they could get settled, and assisted in their obtaining passports.<ref>Lyman, pp. ix, 209, 231, 238–39, 246–51, 266–67, 268–71.</ref>

After ushering in the period of organized emigration to California, Marsh became involved in a military battle between the much-hated Mexican general, [[Manuel Micheltorena]] and the California governor he had replaced, Juan Bautista Alvarado. The armies of each met at the [[Battle of Providencia]] near Los Angeles. Marsh had been forced against his will to join Micheltorena's army. Ignoring his superiors, during the battle, he signaled the other side for a parley. There were many settlers from the United States fighting on both sides. He convinced each side that they had no reason to be fighting each other. As a result of Marsh's actions, they abandoned the fight, Micheltorena was defeated, and California-born [[Pio Pico]] was returned to the governorship. This paved the way to California's ultimate acquisition by the United States.<ref>Lyman, 1931, pp. 250–62.</ref><ref>Stone, Irving. ''Men to Match My Mountains,'' pp. 70–72, Berkley Books, New York, New York, 1982. {{ISBN|0-425-10544-X}}.</ref><ref>Winkley, John W. ''Dr. John Marsh, Wilderness Scout,'' pp. 67–69, The Parthenon Press, Nashville, Tennessee, 1962.</ref><ref>Stone, Irving. ''From Mud-Flat Cove to Gold to Statehood,'' pp. 66–68, Word Dancer Press, Clovis, California, 1999. {{ISBN|1-884995-17-9}}.</ref><ref>Salomon, Carlos Manuel. ''Pio Pico: The Last Governor of Mexican California,'' pp. 68–76, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8061-4090-2.</ref>