Austria

===19th century===
{{See also|Austrian Empire|Austria-Hungary}}

[[File:Congress of Vienna.PNG|thumb|left|The [[Congress of Vienna]] met in 1814–15. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], the [[Napoleonic Wars]], and the dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]]]

Austria later became engaged in a war with [[Revolutionary France]], which was highly unsuccessful in the beginning, with successive defeats at the hands of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], meaning the end of the old [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806. Two years earlier,<ref>Lonnie Johnson 34</ref> the [[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]] was founded. From 1792 to 1801, the Austrians had suffered 754,700 casualties.<ref>Clodfelter</ref> In 1814, Austria was part of the Allied forces that invaded France and brought to an end the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

It emerged from the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 as one of the continent's four dominant powers and a recognised [[great power]]. The same year, the [[German Confederation]] ({{Lang|de|Deutscher Bund}}) was founded under the presidency of Austria. Because of unsolved social, political, and national conflicts, the German lands were shaken by the [[1848 revolutions]] aiming to create a unified Germany.<ref name="johnson 36">Johnson 36</ref>

[[File:Deutscher Bund.svg|thumb|Map of the [[German Confederation]] with its 39 member sovereign states]]

The various different possibilities for a united Germany were: a [[Kleindeutschland and Großdeutschland|Greater Germany]], or a [[United States of Greater Austria|Greater Austria]] or just the German Confederation without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the [[Unification of Germany|German Empire of 1848]], the crown of the newly formed empire was offered to the Prussian King [[Friedrich Wilhelm IV]]. In 1864, Austria and Prussia fought together against [[Denmark]] and secured the independence from Denmark of the duchies of [[Schleswig]] and [[Holstein]]. As they could not agree on how the two duchies should be administered, though, they fought the [[Austro-Prussian War]] in 1866. Defeated by Prussia in the [[Battle of Königgrätz]],<ref name="johnson 36"/> Austria had to leave the German Confederation and no longer took part in German politics.<ref name="johnson 55">Lonnie Johnson 55</ref><ref>Schulze 233</ref>

After the defeated [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]], the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]], the ''Ausgleich'', provided for a dual sovereignty, the [[Austrian Empire]] and the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], under [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]].<ref>Lonnie Johnson 59</ref> The Austrian-Hungarian rule of this diverse empire included various groups, including [[Germans]], [[Hungarians]], Croats, Czechs, [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Rusyns]], Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians, as well as large Italian and Romanian communities.

As a result, ruling Austria-Hungary became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements, requiring considerable reliance on an expanded secret police. Yet, the government of Austria tried its best to be accommodating in some respects: for example, the ''Reichsgesetzblatt'', publishing the laws and ordinances of [[Cisleithania]], was issued in eight languages; and all national groups were entitled to schools in their own language and to the use of their mother tongue at state offices.

[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|left|An ethnic map of [[Austria-Hungary]], 1910]]

Many Austrians of all different social circles such as [[Georg Ritter von Schönerer]] promoted strong [[German nationalism in Austria|pan-Germanism]] in hope of reinforcing an ethnic German identity and the annexation of Austria to Germany.<ref name="DPSO">{{Cite web |date=2000 |title=Das politische System in Österreich (The Political System in Austria) |url=http://www.politischebildung.at/upload/polsystem.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423112116/http://www.politischebildung.at/upload/polsystem.pdf |archive-date=23 April 2014 |access-date=9 July 2014 |publisher=Austrian Federal Press Service |page=24 |language=de |location=Vienna }}</ref> Some Austrians such as [[Karl Lueger]] also used pan-Germanism as a form of populism to further their own political goals. Although Bismarck's policies excluded Austria and the German Austrians from Germany, many Austrian pan-Germans idolised him and wore blue cornflowers, known to be the favourite flower of German Emperor [[William I, German Emperor|William I]], in their buttonholes, along with cockades in the German national colours (black, red, and yellow), although they were both temporarily banned in Austrian schools, as a way to show discontent towards the multi-ethnic empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Unowsky |first=Daniel L. |title=The Pomp and Politics of Patriotism: Imperial Celebrations in Habsburg Austria, 1848–1916 |publisher=Purdue University Press |date=2005 |page=157}}</ref>

Austria's exclusion from Germany caused many Austrians a problem with their national identity and prompted the Social Democratic Leader [[Otto Bauer]] to state that it was "the conflict between our Austrian and German character".<ref>Evan Burr Bukey, Hitler's Austria: Popular Sentiment in the Nazi Era, 1938–1945, p. 6</ref> The Austro-Hungarian Empire caused ethnic tension between the German Austrians and the other ethnic groups. Many Austrians, especially those involved with the pan-German movements, desired a reinforcement of an ethnic German identity and hoped that the empire would collapse, which would allow an [[Anschluss|annexation of Austria by Germany]].<ref>Brigitte Hamann, Hitler's Vienna: A Portrait of the Tyrant as a Young Man, p. 394</ref>

A lot of Austrian pan-German nationalists protested passionately against minister-president [[Count Kasimir Felix Badeni|Kasimir Count Badeni]]'s language decree of 1897, which made German and Czech co-official languages in Bohemia and required new government officials to be fluent in both languages. This meant in practice that the civil service would almost exclusively hire Czechs, because most middle-class Czechs spoke German but not the other way around. The support of [[ultramontanism|ultramontane]] Catholic politicians and clergy for this reform triggered the launch of the ''[[Away from Rome]]'' movement, which was initiated by supporters of Schönerer and called on "German" Christians to leave the Roman Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite news |last=Suppan |title='Germans' in the Habsburg Empire |publisher=The Germans and the East |date=2008 |pages=164, 172}}</ref>