Architecture Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==History== {{Main|History of architecture}} ===Origins and vernacular architecture=== {{main|Vernacular architecture}} <gallery mode="packed"> File:Stærnes Søndre Loft, Rollag.jpg|In [[Norway]]: wood and elevated-level File:Lesotho Slide Show (294).JPG|In [[Lesotho]]: rondavel stones File:Yola hut -Tagoat Co. Wexford.JPG|In [[Ireland]]: Yola hut Muzeul Satului Bucuresti 02.jpg|In [[Romania]]: peasant houses in the [[Dimitrie Gusti National Village Museum]] ([[Bucharest]]) </gallery> Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available [[building material]]s and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a [[craft]], and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed [[vernacular architecture]] continues to be produced in many parts of the world. ===Prehistoric architecture=== <gallery mode="packed"> File:Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpg|[[Göbekli Tepe]] from [[Turkey]], founded in 10th millennium BC and abandoned in 8th millennium BC Goseck Circle 1.jpg|[[Goseck circle]], [[Germany]] 4900 BC File:Cucuteni MNIR IMG 7622.JPG|Miniature of a regular Cucuteni-Trypillian house, full of ceramic vessels File:Orkney Skara Brae.jpg|Excavated dwellings at [[Skara Brae]] ([[Mainland, Orkney]], [[Scotland]], UK) </gallery> Early human settlements were mostly [[rural]]. Hence, Expending economies resulted in the creation of [[proto-cities]] or [[urban area]]s which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such as that of [[Çatalhöyük]] in [[Anatolia]] and [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo Daro]] of the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day [[Pakistan]]. Neolithic [[List of archaeological sites|settlements and "cities"]] include [[Göbekli Tepe]] and [[Çatalhöyük]] in Turkey, [[Jericho]] in the Levant, [[Mehrgarh]] in Pakistan, the [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture]] settlements in [[Romania]], [[Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]], and in [[Prehistoric Scotland|Scotland]] the far smaller [[Skara Brae]], [[Orkney Islands]] ===Classical era=== <gallery mode="packed"> File:Ishtar gate in Pergamon museum in Berlin..jpg|[[Mesopotamian architecture]]: [[Reconstruction (architecture)|Reconstruction]] of the [[Ishtar Gate]] in the [[Pergamon Museum]] ([[Berlin]], [[Germany]]), {{Circa|575 BC}} Kheops-Pyramid.jpg|[[Ancient Egyptian architecture]]: The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] ([[Giza]], Egypt), {{Circa|2589}}–2566 BC, by [[Hemiunu]] File:Parthenon (30276156187).jpg|[[Ancient Greek architecture]]: The [[Parthenon]] on the [[Athenian Acropolis]], made of marble and limestone, 460–406 BC Maison Carree in Nimes (16).jpg|[[Ancient Roman architecture]]: The [[Maison Carrée]] from [[Nîmes]] (France), one of the best-preserved Roman temples, {{Circa|2 AD}} 009 Armenia Garni (1540603685).jpg|[[Armenian Architecture]]: The [[Garni Temple]] from [[Garni]] (Armenia), {{Circa|1 century AD}} </gallery> In many ancient civilizations such as those of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]], architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the [[divine]] and the [[supernatural]], and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the ruler or the state itself. The architecture and [[urbanism]] of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical civilizations]] such as the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. As the Architectural "style" developed in the form of the [[Classical orders]]. Roman architecture was influenced by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-art/beginners-guide-greece/a/introduction-to-greek-architecture|title=Introduction to Greek architecture|website=Khan Academy|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014123040/http://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-art/beginners-guide-greece/a/introduction-to-greek-architecture|archive-date=2014-10-14|url-status=dead|access-date=2017-06-23}}</ref> Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BC Roman architect Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious. ===Asian architecture=== <gallery mode="packed"> Beauty of khajuraho temple.jpg|[[Indian architecture]]: The [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] ([[Khajuraho]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]), {{Circa|1030}} File:11 Temple of Heaven.jpg|[[Chinese architecture]]: The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, the main building of the [[Temple of Heaven]] ([[Beijing]], China), 1703–1790 Himeji Castle The Keep Towers.jpg|[[Japanese architecture]]: The [[Himeji Castle]] ([[Himeji]], [[Hyōgo Prefecture]], [[Japan]]), 1609 File:Roulos Group - 005 Bakong (8587796725).jpg|[[Khmer architecture]]: The [[Bakong]] (near [[Siem Reap]], [[Cambodia]]), earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor, completed in 881 AD </gallery> The architecture of different parts of [[Asia]] developed differently than Europe; and each of Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture had different characteristics. Unlike Indian and Chinese architecture, which had great influence on the surrounding regions, [[Japanese architecture]] did not. Some Asian architecture showed great regional diversity such as [[Buddhist architecture]], in particular. Moreover, other architectural achievements in Asia is the [[Hindu temple architecture]], which developed from around the 5th century CE, is in theory governed by concepts laid down in the [[Shastra]]s, and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the [[natural landscape]]. Also, the grandest houses were relatively lightweight structures mainly using wood until recent times, and there are few survivals of great age. Buddhism was associated with a move to stone and brick religious structures, probably beginning as [[rock-cut architecture]], which has often survived very well. Early Asian writings on architecture include the ''Kao Gong Ji'' of China from the 7th–5th centuries BC; the [[Shilpa Shastras]] of ancient India; [[Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra]] of [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Araniko]] of [[Nepal]] . ===Islamic architecture=== {{Main|Islamic architecture}} <gallery mode="packed"> File:Córdoba (5157827355).jpg|[[Moorish architecture]]: Grand arches of the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]] ([[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Spain]]) File:20180301124354 IMG 4179And6more Interior 3.jpg|[[Persian architecture]]: The [[Jameh Mosque of Isfahan|Jameh Mosque]] in [[Isfahan]] ([[Iran]]) File:Taj Mahal, Agra, India edit2.jpg|[[Mughal architecture]]: The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] ([[India]]) Selimiye Mosque, Dome.jpg|[[Ottoman architecture]]: The interior side view of the main dome of the [[Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)|Selimiye Mosque]] in [[Edirne]] ([[Turkey]]) </gallery> Islamic architecture began in the 7th century, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient [[Middle East]] and [[Byzantium]], but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, Turkey, North Africa, the Indian Sub-continent and in parts of Europe, such as Spain, Albania, and the Balkan States, as the result of the expansion of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. <ref name="metmuseum.org-ottoman-europe">{{cite web |author1=Marika Sardar |title=Essay: The Later Ottomans and the Impact of Europe |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/otto3/hd_otto3.htm |website=www.metmuseum.org |publisher=The Met |access-date=12 February 2019 |language=en |date=October 2004 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213145924/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/otto3/hd_otto3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="brill.com-book-Lory">{{cite book|last1=Lory|first1=Bernard|title=Entangled Histories of the Balkans – Volume Three|chapter=The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans|chapter-url=https://brill.com/configurable/contentpage/book$002fedcoll$002f9789004290365$002fB9789004290365_006.xml|website=Entangled Histories of the Balkans – Volume Three|access-date=12 February 2019|pages=355–405|language=en|chapter-format=html / pdf|doi=10.1163/9789004290365_006|date=2015|isbn=978-9004290365|archive-date=13 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213064155/https://brill.com/configurable/contentpage/book$002fedcoll$002f9789004290365$002fB9789004290365_006.xml|url-status=live}}To create a sustainable construction industry - [https://sumerinnovations.com/ Sumer Innovations]</ref> ===European medieval architecture=== {{main|Medieval architecture}} <gallery mode="packed"> +Mayr Ator Vagharshapat 01.jpg|[[Armenian Architecture]]: Interior of [[Etchmiadzin Cathedral]], the first cathedral in the world, founded 303 year AD. Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore abside a Roma.jpg|[[Byzantine architecture]]: [[Apse]] of [[Santa Maria Maggiore]] ([[Rome]]), decorated in the 5th century with this glamorous mosaic Aix dom int vue cote.jpg|[[Carolingian architecture]]: Interior of the [[Aachen Cathedral]] ([[Aachen]], Germany), 796–805 Durham Cathedral Nave.jpg|[[Romanesque architecture]]: Interior of the [[Durham Cathedral]] ([[Durham, England|Durham]], UK), 1093–1133 Sainte Chapelle Interior Stained Glass.jpg|Gothic architecture: Stained glass windows of the [[Sainte-Chapelle]] in Paris, completed in 1248, mostly constructed between 1194 and 1220 </gallery> In [[Europe]] during the [[Medieval]] period, [[guild]]s were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or ''Magister lathomorum'' as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents. The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and [[cathedral]]s. From about 900 onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic. Also, a significant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous [[fortifications]] across the continent. From the Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an important part of European heritage. ===Renaissance architecture=== {{Main|Renaissance architecture}} <gallery mode="packed"> Florence Duomo (167859687).jpeg|The [[Florence Cathedral]] ([[Florence]], [[Italy]]), 1294–1436, by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]], [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] and [[Emilio De Fabris]] Tempietto del Bramante Vorderseite.jpg|[[San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto|The Tempietto]] (Rome), by [[Donato Bramante]], 1444–1514 Le salon des Perspectives (Villa Farnesina, Rome) (34242676046).jpg|The Hall of Perspective from [[Villa Farnesina]] (Rome), by [[Baldassare Peruzzi]], 1505–1510 07-Villa-Rotonda-Palladio.jpg|The [[Villa Capra "La Rotonda"|Villa La Rotonda]] ([[Vicenza]], Italy), 1567 – {{c.|1592}}, by [[Andrea Palladio]] Schloss Chenonceau.JPG|The [[Château de Chenonceau]] (France), by [[Philibert de l'Orme]], 1576 </gallery> In [[Renaissance]] Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of [[Renaissance humanism]], which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, [[Leone Battista Alberti|Alberti]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Palladio]] – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between [[artist]], architect and [[engineer]], or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference. A revival of the [[Classical architecture|Classical style]] in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering, which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist. ===Early modern and the industrial age=== <gallery mode="packed"> Château de Maisons-Laffitte 001.jpg|[[Baroque architecture]]: The [[Château de Maisons]] (France), by [[François Mansart]], 1630–1651 Petit appartement du roi - Pièce de la vaisselle d'or (3).jpg|[[Rococo|Rococo architecture]]: The pièce de la vaisselle d'or ([[Palace of Versailles]], [[Versailles]], France) West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG|[[Neoclassical architecture]]: The west facade of the [[Petit Trianon]] (Versailles), 1764, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]] All Saints Margaret Street Interior 2, London, UK - Diliff.jpg|[[Historicism|Historicist architecture]] (in this case [[Gothic Revival Architecture|Gothic Revival]]): Interior of the [[All Saints, Margaret Street|All Saints]] (London), 1850–1859, by [[William Butterfield]] The Museum of Ages.jpg|[[History of architecture#Classicist Eclecticism|19th century Eclectic Classicist architecture]]: The Museum of Ages on [[Victory Avenue]] ([[Bucharest]], Romania), late 19th century, unknown architect Vedere a Halelor din Paris de pe Biserica Saint Eustache.jpg|19th century [[industrial architecture]]: [[Les Halles]] (Paris), 1850s-destroyed in 1971, by [[Victor Baltard]] Éden-Théâtre 1876 Paris - Chauveau 1999 after p96.jpg|[[Orientalism|Orientalist architecture]]: The [[Éden-Théâtre]] (Paris), early 1880s – demolished in 1895, by William Klein and Albert Duclos 56, Bulevardul Dacia, Bucharest (Romania).jpg|[[Revivalism (architecture)|Revivalist architecture]] of a national style (in this case [[Romanian Revival architecture|Romanian Revival]]): The C.N. Câmpeanu House on Bulevardul Dacia (Bucharest), {{c.|1923}}, by Constantin Nănescu<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woinaroski|first1=Cristina|title=Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context european|date=2013|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-30-8|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref> Palacio CEC, Bucarest, Rumanía, 2016-05-29, DD 91-93 HDR.jpg|[[Beaux-Arts architecture]]: The [[CEC Palace]] on [[Calea Victoriei|Victory Avenue]] (Bucharest), 8 June 1897 – 1900, by Paul Gottereau<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marinache|first1=Oana|title=Paul Gottereau – Un Regal în Arhitectură|date=2017|publisher=Editura Istoria Artei|isbn=978-606-8839-09-7|page=184|url=|language=ro}}</ref> File:Castel Béranger, February 16, 2013.jpg|[[Art Nouveau#Architecture and ornamentation|Art Nouveau architecture]]: The Entrance of the [[Castel Béranger]] (Paris), 1895–1898, by [[Hector Guimard]] </gallery> The emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and [[engineering]] began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on [[aesthetics]] and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Neo Gothic]] or [[Scottish baronial]] styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Meanwhile, the [[Industrial Revolution]] laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. Housebuilders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals. ===Modernism=== {{Main|Modern architecture}} <gallery mode="packed"> Alfeld Fagus 08JUL15.JPG|[[Modern architecture#Early modernism in Europe (1900–1914)|Early Modern architecture]]: The [[Fagus Factory]] ([[Alfeld]], Germany), 1911, by [[Walter Gropius]] Einsteinturm 7443a.jpg|[[Expressionist architecture]]: The [[Einstein Tower]] ([[Potsdam]], near [[Berlin]], Germany), 1919–1922, by [[Erich Mendelsohn]] Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, 21 April 2013.jpg|[[Art Deco#Architecture|Art Deco architecture]]: The [[Théâtre des Champs-Élysées]] (Paris), 1910–1913, by [[Auguste Perret]] Overzicht voorgevel - Heerlen - 20349660 - RCE.jpg|[[International Style (architecture)|International Style]]: The [[Glaspaleis]] ([[Heerlen]], the Netherlands), 1934–1935, by [[Frits Peutz]] and [[Philip Johnson]] </gallery> Around the beginning of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist architecture]] and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern architecture. Notable among these is the [[Deutscher Werkbund]], formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the [[Bauhaus]] school, founded in [[Weimar]], Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis{{snd}}the apex{{snd}}of art, craft, and technology. When [[modern architecture]] was first practiced, it was an [[avant-garde]] movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after [[World War I]], pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Architects such as [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] developed [[organic architecture]], in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being [[Robie House]] and [[Fallingwater]]. Architects such as [[Mies van der Rohe]], [[Philip Johnson]] and [[Marcel Breuer]] worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the [[Industrial Revolution]], including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. [[Fazlur Rahman Khan]]'s development of the [[Tube (structure)|tube structure]] was a technological break-through in building ever higher. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the [[International style (architecture)|International Style]], an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] designed by [[Minoru Yamasaki]]. ===Postmodernism=== {{main|Postmodern architecture}} <gallery mode="packed"> PiazzaDItalia1990.jpg|[[Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans)|Piazza d'Italia]] ([[New Orleans]], US), 1978, by [[Charles Moore (architect)|Charles Moore]] The Walt Disney Company office.jpg|[[Team Disney]] Building ([[Los Angeles]], US), 1990, by [[Michael Graves]] Cambridge University Judge Business School interior.jpg|Multicolour interior of the [[Cambridge Judge Business School]] ([[Cambridge]], the UK), 1995, by [[John Outram]] Case danzanti.jpg|The [[Dancing House]] ([[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]]), 1996, by [[Vlado Milunić]] and [[Frank Gehry]] </gallery> Many architects resisted [[modernism]], finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after [[World War II]], the second generation of architects including [[Paul Rudolph (architect)|Paul Rudolph]], [[Marcel Breuer]], and [[Eero Saarinen]] tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with [[Brutalism]], buildings with expressive sculpture façades made of unfinished concrete. But an even younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures. One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of [[metaphoric architecture]], which includes such things as [[Biomorphism|bio morphism]] and [[zoomorphic architecture]], both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to be merely an aspect of [[postmodernism]], others consider it to be a school in its own right and a later development of [[expressionist architecture]].<ref name=metaphor> {{Cite book | last = Fez-Barringten | first = Barie | title = Architecture: The Making of Metaphors | publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing | year = 2012 | location = Newcastle upon Tyne | isbn = 978-1-4438-3517-6}}</ref> Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, [[architectural phenomenology]] emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like [[Charles Moore (architect)|Charles Moore]] in the United States, [[Christian Norberg-Schulz]] in Norway, and [[Ernesto Nathan Rogers]] and [[Vittorio Gregotti]], [[Michele Valori]], [[Bruno Zevi]] in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents.<ref>{{cite book |last=Otero-Pailos |first=Jorge |title=Architecture's Historical Turn: Phenomenology and the Rise of the Postmodern |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=2010 |location=Minneapolis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WDOQgAACAAJ&q=architecture's%20historical%20turn |isbn=978-0816666041 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319184501/https://books.google.com/books?id=3WDOQgAACAAJ&q=architecture%27s%20historical%20turn |url-status=live }}</ref> Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building technology and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles, from high classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. [[Robert Venturi]] famously defined postmodern architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) and upheld it against modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).<ref>{{cite book |last=Venturi |first=Robert |title=Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture |publisher=Museum of Modern Art |year=1966 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/complexitycontra00vent |url-access=registration |quote=complexity and contradiction in architecture. }}</ref> ===Architecture today=== {{Main|Contemporary architecture}} <gallery mode="packed"> Dallas Meadows Museum 1.jpg|The [[Meadows Museum]] ([[Dallas]], [[Texas]], US), 2001, by [[Thomas H. Beeby|HBRA architects]] File:Beijing national stadium.jpg|The [[Beijing National Stadium]] ([[Beijing]], China), 2003–2007, by [[Herzog & de Meuron]] Campus WU LC D1 TC DSC 1440w.jpg|The Library and Learning Center of the [[University of Vienna]] ([[Vienna]], Austria), 2008, by [[Zaha Hadid]] File:Isbjerget.jpg|The [[Isbjerget]] housing project ([[Aarhus]], Denmark), inspired by form and color of icebergs, 2013, by [[CEBRA]], [[Julien De Smedt|JDS Architects]], Louis Paillard, and SeARCH </gallery> Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. Moreover, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect<ref group="Notes">A design architect is one who is responsible for the design.</ref> from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability.<ref group="Notes">A project architect is one who is responsible for ensuring the design is built correctly and who administers building contracts – in non-specialist architectural practices the project architect is also the design architect and the term refers to the differing roles the architect plays at differing stages of the process.</ref> The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. [[Modern architecture|Modernism]] and [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodernism]] have been criticized by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create livable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences. Environmental [[sustainability]] has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in [[passive solar building design]], [[Green roof|greener roof designs]], [[Biodegradation|biodegradable]] materials, and more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings that seek to meet [[green building]] [[sustainable design]] principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques.<ref>{{cite web |author=OneWorld.net |url=http://el.doccentre.info/eldoc/0411/dwvernacular_architecture.html |title=Vernacular Architecture in India |publisher=El.doccentre.info |date=31 March 2004 |access-date=2 July 2011 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303000426/https://el.doccentre.info/eldoc/0411/dwvernacular_architecture.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The U.S. Green Building Council's [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.<ref>Other [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] and green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS ([[Collaborative for High Performance Schools]]).</ref>{{Quantify|date=July 2016}} Concurrently, the recent movements of [[New Urbanism]], [[Metaphoric architecture]], [[Complementary architecture]] and [[New Classical architecture]] promote a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], architectural tradition and [[Classical architecture|classical design]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnu.org/charter|title=The Charter of the New Urbanism|work=cnu.org|date=2015-04-20|access-date=23 March 2014|archive-date=29 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629164755/http://www.cnu.org/charter|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future|url=http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|publisher=Traditional Architecture Group|access-date=23 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305215635/http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|archive-date=5 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> This in contrast to modernist and [[International Style (architecture)|globally uniform]] architecture, as well as leaning against solitary [[housing estate]]s and [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]].<ref>[http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119170943/https://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf |date=19 November 2018 }}. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 23 March 2014.</ref> Glass curtain walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra modern urban life in many countries surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria where international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century mostly because of the leanings of foreign-trained architects.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://litcaf.com/architecture/|title=Architecture|date=2016-02-10|work=Litcaf|access-date=2017-06-04|language=en-US|archive-date=19 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119170946/https://litcaf.com/architecture/|url-status=live}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). 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