Ancient Rome

== Late Republic ==
After defeating the [[Macedon]]ian and [[Seleucid Empire]]s in the 2nd century BC, the [[Roman people|Romans]] became the dominant people of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bury |first=John Bagnell |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/secondary/burlat/home.html |title=History of the Later Roman Empire |publisher=MacMillan and Co. |year=1889|author-link=J. B. Bury}}; [http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501115720/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM |date=1 May 2011}} by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became cosmopolitan. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies.

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 | image1 = Marius and the Ambassadors of the Cimbri.jpg
 | alt1 = Gaius Marius
 | caption1 = [[Gaius Marius]], a general who dramatically reformed the [[Military history of ancient Rome|Roman military]] and was repeatedly elected [[Roman consul|consul]] to handle invasions of the [[Cimbri]] and [[Teutones]]

 | image2 = Q. Pompeius Rufus, denarius, 54 BC, RRC 434-1 (Sulla only).jpg
 | alt2 = L. Cornelius Sulla
 | caption2 = [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|L. Cornelius Sulla]], leader of the rival [[optimates|optimate party]], who ultimately marched on Rome twice, established himself as [[dictator (Rome)|dictator]], [[Sulla's proscription|massacring opponents]] and [[constitutional reforms of Sulla|attempting to restore the prerogatives]] of the [[patricians (Rome)|Patricians]] and [[Roman Senate|Senate]]

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Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the [[Roman province|provinces]]' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign [[slavery in antiquity|slaves]] and the growth of ''[[latifundia]]'' reduced the availability of paid work.<ref>{{Harvnb|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/136 136–137]}}; [http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~rauhn/fall_of_republic.htm Fall of the Roman Republic, 133–27 BC]. [[Purdue University]]. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref> Income from war booty, [[mercantilism]] in the new provinces, and [[tax farming]] created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the [[Equestrian order|equestrians]].<ref name="Liviuseques">[https://www.livius.org/ei-er/eques/eques.html Eques (Knight)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140807190312/http://www.livius.org/ei-er/eques/eques.html |date=7 August 2014}} by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref> The ''[[lex Claudia]]'' forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power.<ref name="Liviuseques"/>{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=38}} The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important [[land reform]]s and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government.

Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the [[Gracchi]] brothers, a pair of [[tribune]]s who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tuma |first=Elias H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmZHKOHgvFQC |title=Twenty-six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative Analysis |date=1965 |publisher=University of California Press |page=34}}</ref> This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups ([[populares]]) and equestrian classes ([[optimates]]).

[[Gaius Marius]] soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107&nbsp;BC by arguing that his former patron [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus]] was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king [[Jugurtha]]. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army. Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100&nbsp;BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the [[Cimbri]] and the [[Teutones]], who were threatening Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian ''socii'' ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist [[Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune)|Marcus Livius Drusus]] supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the ''socii'' revolted against the Romans in the [[Social War (91-88&nbsp;BC)|Social War]]. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with [[Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 90&nbsp;BC)|Lucius Julius Caesar]] and [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]].<ref name="WHdP-EBp760"/>

By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88&nbsp;BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat [[Mithridates VI]] of [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause. In the following year, 87&nbsp;BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]] and killed the other consul, [[Gnaeus Octavius (consul 87 BC)|Gnaeus Octavius]], achieving his seventh consulship. Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.<ref name="WHdP-EBp760">{{Cite book |last=William Harrison De Puy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGxJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA760 |title=The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature; the R.S. Peale reprint, with new maps and original American articles |publisher=Werner Co. |year=1893 |page=760}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Henry George Liddell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mQBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA305 |title=A history of Rome, to the establishment of the empire |year=1855 |page=305}}</ref>

Marius died in 86&nbsp;BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84&nbsp;BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83&nbsp;BC he made his [[Sulla's civil war|second march in Rome]] and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla held two [[Roman dictator|dictatorships]] and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.<ref name="WHdP-EBp760"/>

===Caesar and the First Triumvirate===
[[File:Landing of the Romans on the Coast of Kent.jpg|thumb|Landing of the Romans in [[Kent]], 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near [[Deal, Kent|Deal]]. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the [[English Channel]] to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|invasion]].]]

In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups, ''[[populares]]'' (who hoped for the support of the people) and ''[[optimates]]'' (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the [[tribune of the plebs]]) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the [[Catiline|Catilinarian conspiracy]]—a resounding failure since the consul [[Marcus Tullius Cicero]] quickly arrested and executed the main leaders.

[[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (anglicised as Pompey), to whom he married [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|his daughter]]. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the [[First Triumvirate]] ("three men"). Caesar's daughter died in childbirth in 54 BC, and in 53&nbsp;BC, Crassus invaded [[Parthia]] and was killed in the [[Battle of Carrhae]]; the Triumvirate disintegrated. Caesar [[Gallic Wars|conquered Gaul]], obtained immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He became a threat to Pompey and was loathed by many ''optimates''. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.

To avoid this fate, Caesar [[Caesar's Civil War|crossed the Rubicon]] River and invaded Rome in 49&nbsp;BC. The [[Battle of Pharsalus]] was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, he destroyed all of the ''optimates'' leaders: [[Metellus Scipio]], [[Cato the Younger]], and Pompey's son, [[Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)|Gnaeus Pompeius]]. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48&nbsp;BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome: in five years he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44&nbsp;BC, on the [[Ides of March]] by the ''[[Liberatores]]''.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caesar_julius.shtml Julius Caesar (100–44 BC)]. BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>

===Octavian and the Second Triumvirate===
Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, [[Mark Antony|Marcus Antonius]]. Soon afterward, [[Augustus|Octavius]], whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the [[Roman naming conventions]]) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43&nbsp;BC, along with Antony and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], Caesar's best friend,<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html] Plutarch, Life of Caesar. Retrieved 1 October 2011</ref> he legally established the [[Second Triumvirate]]. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the ''[[Liberatores]]''.<ref>[http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm Augustus (31 BC – 14 AD)] by Garrett G. Fagan. ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''. 5 July 2004. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>

In 42&nbsp;BC, the Senate [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|deified]] Caesar as ''[[Divus Iulius]]''; Octavian thus became ''[[Divi filius]]'',<ref>[https://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html Coins of the Emperor Augustus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525075317/http://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html |date=25 May 2009}}; examples are a coin of 38&nbsp;BC inscribed "Divi Iuli filius", and another of 31&nbsp;BC bearing the inscription "Divi filius" ([http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf ''Auguste vu par lui-même et par les autres'' by Juliette Reid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319090301/http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf |date=19 March 2009}}).</ref> the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the ''Liberatores'', [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]], in the [[Battle of Philippi]]. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the [[proscription]]s of many senators and ''equites'': after a revolt led by Antony's brother [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]], more than 300 senators and ''equites'' involved were executed, although Lucius was spared.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#ref53] Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XV.</ref>

The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Italia]] and controlled [[Hispania]] and [[Gaul]]. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38&nbsp;BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36&nbsp;BC after betraying Octavian in [[Bellum Siculum|Sicily]]. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], ruled by his lover, [[Cleopatra VII]]. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and [[Hellenistic]] for a Roman statesman.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#ref57] Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Antony'', LXXI, 3–5.</ref> Following Antony's [[Donations of Alexandria]], which [[Reign of Cleopatra VII|gave to Cleopatra]] the title of "[[Queen of Kings]]", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, [[War of Actium|war between Octavian and Antony broke out]]. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31&nbsp;BC. [[Death of Cleopatra|Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide]]. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire.