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Do not fill this in! ==Epistemological concepts in past philosophies== In ''Meno'', the definition of knowledge as justified true belief appears for the first time.<ref name="Hetherington2012" />{{Rp|page=33}} In other words, belief is required to have an explanation in order to be correct, beyond just happening to be right.<ref name="Hetherington2012" />{{Rp|page=34}} A number of important epistemological concerns also appeared in the works of [[Aristotle]].<ref name="Britannica Epistemology" /> [[File:Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg|thumb|[[René Descartes]], who is often credited as the father of modern philosophy, was often preoccupied with epistemological questions in his work.]] During the subsequent [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenistic period]], philosophical schools began to appear which had a greater focus on epistemological questions, often in the form of [[philosophical skepticism]].<ref name="Britannica Epistemology" /> For instance, the Hellenistic Sceptics, especially [[Sextus Empiricus]] of the [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonian school]] rejected justification on the basis of [[Agrippa's trilemma]] and so, in the view of {{Harvtxt|Irwin|2010}},<ref name="Irwin2010"/> rejected the possibility of knowledge as well. The Pyrrhonian school of [[Pyrrho]] and [[Sextus Empiricus]] held that [[eudaimonia]] (flourishing, happiness, or "the good life") could be attained through the application of [[epoché]] (suspension of judgment) regarding all non-evident matters. Pyrrhonism was particularly concerned with undermining the epistemological [[dogma]]s of [[Stoicism]] and [[Epicureanism]].<ref name="Britannica Epistemology" /> The other major school of Hellenistic skepticism was [[Academic skepticism]], most notably defended by [[Carneades]] and [[Arcesilaus]], which predominated in the [[Platonic Academy]] for almost two centuries.<ref name="Britannica Epistemology" /> In ancient India, the [[Ajñana]] school of [[Hindu philosophy|ancient Indian philosophy]] promoted skepticism. Ajñana was a [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇa movement]] and a major rival of [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and the [[Ājīvika]] school. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or to ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. During the [[Islamic Golden Age]], one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists, logicians, and mystics in Islamic epistemology was [[Al-Ghazali]]. During his life, he wrote over 70 books on science, Islamic reasoning, and Sufism.<ref name="Smith1936" /> Al-Ghazali distributed his book ''The Incoherence of Philosophers'', set apart as a defining moment in Islamic epistemology. He shaped a conviction that all occasions and connections are not the result of material conjunctions, but are the present and prompt will of God.<ref name="Al-Ghazali" /> After the ancient philosophical era but before the modern philosophical era, a number of (non Islamic) [[Medieval philosophy|medieval philosophers]] also engaged with epistemological questions at length. Most notable among the Medievals for their contributions to epistemology were [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[John Duns Scotus]], and [[William of Ockham]].<ref name="Britannica Epistemology" /> According to historian of philosophy [[Jan Woleński]], the development of philosophy divides, with some exceptions, into the pre-Cartesian ''ontologically oriented'' and the post-Cartesian ''epistemologically oriented''.<ref>Woleński, Jan. (2004) "The History of Epistemology." In ''Handbook of Epistemology''. Ed. I. Niiniluoto, Matti Sintonen, & Jan Woleński. Springer, p.4</ref> <!-- Missing: Discussion of Medieval Islamic epistemology --> === Contemporary historiography === There are a number of different methods that contemporary scholars use when trying to understand the relationship between past epistemology and contemporary epistemology. One of the most contentious questions is this: "Should we assume that the problems of epistemology are perennial, and that trying to reconstruct and evaluate Plato's or Hume's or Kant's arguments is meaningful for current debates, too?"<ref name="Sturm2011"/> Similarly, there is also a question of whether contemporary philosophers should aim to ''rationally reconstruct and evaluate'' historical views in epistemology, or to ''merely describe'' them.<ref name="Sturm2011" /> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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